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THE 

TRAVANCORE 

TRIBES AND CASTES 

VOLUME III 

THE ABORIGINES OF TRAVANCORE 



BY 

L. A. KRISHNA IYER, M. A. 

Officer in charge of Ethnographic Survey 

with a Foreword by 

The Hon'ble C. P. SKRINE, O. B. E., I. C. S., 

Resident, Punjab States 



and an Introduction by 

R. R. M ARETT, M. A., D. So., D. Litt., LL. D., F. B. A., 

Rector, Exeter College, Oxford. 



Trivandrum : 

Printed by the Superintendent, Government Press , 
1941 



DEDICATED 

TO 

SACHIVOTTAMA 
SIR C. P. RAMASWAM! AIYAR, 

K. C.S. I., K. C. I.E..LL.D.. 
DEWAN OF TRAVANCORE 

AS A TOKEN OF 
GRATITUDE AND ESTEEM 



PREFACE 

The author has been privileged, during a 
period of over a quarter of a century's service 
in the Forest Administration of Travancore, to 
enjoy unusual opportunities of meeting the jungle 
tribes of the State. From his very first contacts 
with them they aroused in him a deep and abiding 
interest and a desire to know more and more of their 
social life and problems. The inner life of the jungle 
reveals itself to those who linger lovingly amidst 
its shadows; and the author's sojournings among 
the tribes led him to study their customs, manners 
and social institutions. 

Travancore is unique in that it includes among 
its population some of the most primitive tribes 
of the peninsula, tribes in some cases less changed 
perhaps by external influences than those of any 
other part of India. The purpose of the first two 
volumes of the Travancore Tribes and Castes was 
to set out the factual material gathered during 
prolonged residence and research among the tribes. 
The primary object was to present as true a picture 
as possible of the jungle tribes, a life apparently 
simple to the casual observer, but reflecting in 
essentials all the fundamental problems facing, 
though not solved by, so called civilized man, such 
as those of food-production, family, social, moral 
and religious life. 



IV 

The task of the social investigator here is not 
always easy; he has to resist the temptation to 
record facts which might appear to him at the 
time more important and to overlook those which 
might not do so. Westermarck, referring to his 
experience in his enquiries on the science of human 
society, says how "a fact which at first may have 
seemed a trifle not worthy of attention, has later 
shed the most unexpected light over the origin of 
the development of some important institution. " 
The author's first two volumes have attempted 
to present in a systematic manner the data collected 
through personal investigations and intensive 
studies for over a decade. He has endeavoured to 
present an unvarnished account of the life and 
institutions of the jungle tribes in a scientific temper 
which insists on accuracy of statement and fidelity 
tc facts. 

The real meaning and significance of factual 
data can be understood only when they are cor- 
related to, and interpreted in the light of, known 
facts. The accounts of the jungle tribes cannot 
be complete without some knowledge as to their 
parent stock and racial origins, their collateral 
branches and distribution. This part of the story 
is one of theoretical reconstruction which calls 
for speculation and interpretation. Scholars like 
Keane, Haddon, Button and Eickstedt have made 
notable contributions in this direction. The present 
volume 'THE ABORIGINES OF TRAVANCORE' 
contains the conclusions of the author on the study 
of the tribes to which Blood-grouping studies have 



yielded additional evidence. It attempts an inter- 
pretative glimpse of the inner life of the tribes 
who have now come under civilizing influences. 
It gives an exposition of primitive culture in all 
its aspects; a study whose importance has not 
received adequate recognition. In the opening 
address with which Westermarck, as Vice-Chan- 
cellor, prefaced the work of the Abo Academy, 
he said, "Not so long ago there was a generally 
current idea that the manners and customs of 
savage tribes could at most only be of interest as 
curiosities, and their study was scarcely looked 
upon as a science. And yet what an extraordinarily 
useful influence this study has exercised in the last 
few decades on the history of law, the science of 
religion, moral psychology, and sociology in general J 
It has, amongst other things, taught us to what a 
large extent civilized man still preserves the customs 
and ideas of savages in his institutions, in entire 
ignorance that he is so doing; for a nation's customs 
are like balls that seem to roll by their own impetus 
on through the centuries, and often it is only the 
study of primitive races that can give us a notion 
of the push that set the ball in motion. "* The 
author therefore feels grateful that he has been 
enabled to present a true and complete picture of 
the primitive culture of the State for posterity, 
for foreign influences are, according to Dr. Marett, 
obliterating the old landmarks like a rising tide; 
and unless these are charted at once, mere guesswork 
must alone serve to recall them. "There is every 

* Weslerrnarok, Memories of My Life, pp. 279-280, 



VI 

reason why human nature should be known to 
everybody; and the wise State will see to it that 
it is known Ignorance must go, especially ignpr- 
ance of that which is now known about life which 
must be known to live soundly and sanely."* " Every 
people, every tribe, however little advanced in its 
stage of development, represents a certain psychic 
type or pattern. The interests of humanity require 
that every type should be assisted and educated to 
its adequate expression and development. No race 
lives to itself and no race dies to itself, "f 

Tliis book is of necessity brief. The danger 
of brevity is seeming dogmatism; but the author 
has avoided the dogmatic spirit and discussed the 
problems without bias or passion. He cannot be 
sufficiently grateful to the Government of His High- 
ness the Maharaja Sri Chitra Thirunal for. the 
stimulus given to anthropological research; nor 
can he adequately express his indebtedness to 
Dr. Sachivottama Sir C. P. Ramaswami Aiyar for 
his personal interest and encouragement for giving 
a new reorientation to his work. The publication 
puts a coping stone on the study of the tribes. 

The author takes this opportunity of express- 
ing his deep gratitude to the Hon'ble C. P. Skrine, 
formerly Resident in Travancore, for his appreci- 
ative Foreword, and to Dr. R. R. Marett, Rector of 
Exeter College, Oxford, for his valuable Introduc- 
tion. To Dr. J . H. Cousins he is very thankful for 

* Dorsey, G A., The Nature of Man, p. 102. 
tlidhakmhuaa, S , Tho Hinriu View of Life, p. 95. 



vu 

going through the typescript. His courtesy and 
helpfulness have been among the amenities of the 
labours of the author. He is much indebted to 
Mr. M. K. Nilakanta Aiyar, Chief Secretary to 
Government, for help received in the various stages 
of the publication. He is also under obligations to 
Eao Bahadur T. V. Venkateswara Ayyar for going 
through a portion of the letterpress of the volume. 

Lastly, his thanks are due to Mr. P . E. Mathew, 
Superintendent, Government Press, and his staff 
for the neat printing of the volume. 



Karamanai, Trivandrum, L. A. KBISHNA IYBB. 

21st- October 1940. 



FOREWORD 



BY 

THE HOISTBLE C. P. SKRINE, O. B. E., I. C. S., 

RESIDENT. PUNJAB STATES 



FOREWORD 

Travancore is to be congratulated on setting 
an example to the States of India in furthering 
the cause of pure science. Anthropological and 
ethnological research, though useful to the 
administration, is of little direct economic value 
to a State. But in assessing the culture of a 
people it is the imponderables that count ; and 
the maintenance of a well equipped Ethnological 
Survey by the Government of His Highness Sir 
Bala Rama Varma is one of many outward and 
visible signs of Travancore's inward and spiritual 
enlightenment. 

No better choice than Mr. L. A. Krishna 
Iyer, son of that distinguished anthropologist 
Dewan Bahadur Dr. L. K. Ananthakrishna 
Iyer, could have been made for the direction of 
Fravancore's ethnological survey. His industry 
is monumental, his activity in the field unflagging, 
his style scholarly and lucid. In this volume Mr. 
Iyer discusses the conclusions to be drawn from 
the mass of material set forth in his two volumes 
on " The Travancore Tribes and Castes " 
already published. It is not for a mere layman to 
comment on the theoretical results of Mr. Iyer's 



xu 



labours ; but I shall be surprised if informed 
criticism does not place " The Aborigines of 
Travancore " in the front rank of India's con- 
tributions to that science which deals with 
mankind's proper study-man himself. 



Lahore, C. P. SKRINE. 

2nd February 1940. 



C O N T U N T S. 



PAOT. 
Author 's Preface . . iii 

Foreword by C. P. Skriiie . . xi 

J^ist of Illustrations . . . . xv 

Introduction by R. E. Marett . . xix 
CHAP. 



Introduction Geographical Distribu- 
tion of the Primitive Tribes Popula- 
tion Effect of Geographical Envi- 
ronment Anthropometry in India 
Aiithropoinetric data in 1931 Census 

Indefinite Characters Colour, 
Hair Definite Characters Stature, 
Shape of the head, Nasal Index . . 1 

II. TRADITIONS 

Introductory Kaiiikkar Mutluivan 
Maniiaii Paliyan Vishavaii Con- 
clusion . . . . 21 

III. RACIAL AFFINITIES 

Early Views on Racial Origins Thur- 
stoii Ruggeri Eicksteclt Hutton 

the Negrito Element in Travancore 

Proto Australoid Conclusion . . 31 
IV. MEGALITHIC MONUMENTS 

Introductory Purpose of Megalithic 
Monuments Dolmen Types of Dol- 
men Menhir Age of Megalithic 
Monuments Significance of Dolmens 

Conclusions . . 50 

V. DOMESTIC LIFE 

Clothing and Decoration Mutilations 
and Deformities Food-quest 
Production of Fire .Habitations 
Furniture and Utensils Weapons 
and Tools . . . . 64 

VI. EXOGAMY 

Introductory Malapantaram Ka- 
nikkar Muthuvan Vishavaii 
Urali Mannan Malayarayan Ma- 
la vetaii Malankuravan Ullatan 
Pulaya Paraya Views on Exogamy 76 



CHAP. PAGE. 

VII. MABEIAGE 

Introductory Forms of Marriage 
Cousin-marriage Monogamy Poly- 
gamy Polyandry Levirate and So- 
rorate Widow Marriage Pre- 
puberty coition Marriage Ceremo- 
nies Adultery Influence of 
Civilization . . . . 93 

VIII, TABOO 

Introductory Puberty Customs 
Menstruation Child-birth Relation 
of Taboo to Agriculture Conclusion. 107 

IX. INHERITANCE AND SOCIAL ORGANISATION 

Importance of Survival Inheritance 
of widow Social Organization 
Malapantaram Kanikkar Muthu- 
van Manuan Malayarayan 
Urali Paliyan Pulaya Paraya . . 118 

X. THE DISPOSAL OF THE DEAD 

Introductory Malapaiitaram MH- 
thuvan Urali Paliyan Malaya- 
rayan Kanikkar Malavotan 
Nayfidi Conclusion . . . . 129 

XL RELIGION 

Definition of Religion Animism 
Worship of the Sun Ancestor Spirits 
Village Deities Hunting Spirits 
Tramp Spirits Influence of Hinduism 138 

XII. OCCUPATION AND CLASH OF CULTURE 

General Migratory Cultivation 
Terraced Cultivation Effect of Clash 
of Culture Population Problems 
Remedies of Depopulation . . 149 

INDEX . . . . . . . . 165 

BIBLIOGRAPHY . . . . . . 175 



LIST OF MAP, ILLUSTRATIONS AND CHARTS 

To face Page 

1 Map of Travancore showing tribal distribution 

2 A View of Urali Hamlet showing their culti- 

vation ... 5 

3 A Malapulaya male group to show high stature.. 6 

4 Urali Male (curly hair) ... 13 

5 Urali Female, Front and Profile 

6 A Muthuvan Male, Front and Profile ... 15 

7 A Muthuvan Female, Front and Profile 

8 A Paliyan Male, Front and Profile ... 17 

9 A Paliyan Female, Front and Profile 

10 A Malapantaram Male, Front and Profile ... 18 

1 1 A Malapantaram Female, Front and Profile 

12 A Kanikkaran Male Group ... 21 

13 A Muthuvan Male Group ... 25 

14 .A Mannan Male Group ... 25 

15 A Urali Male Group ... 26 

16 A Pali} an Male Group ... 28 

17 A Vishavan Male Group ... 28 

18 A Malavetan Male, Front and Profile ... 35 

19 A Malavetan Female, Front and Profile 

20 A Malapulaya Male, Front and Profile ... 35 

21 A Malapulaya Female, Front and Profile 

22 A Kanapulaya Male, Front and Profile ... 40 

23 A Kanapulaya Female, Front and Profile 

24 A Sambavar Male, Front and Profile ... 47 

25 A Sambavar Female, Front and Profile 

26 A view of Dolmen area in Anjanad ... 51 

27 A view of typical Dolmens in Anjanad ... 54 

28 A Dolmen showing coursed masonry over the 

cover slab 54 

29 A Dolmen in Rani Reserve ... 54 

30 A Thantapulaya Female group in their primi" 

live costume 65 

31 A Malavetan chipping the incisor teeth ... 66 

32 A Malavetan woman showing the chipped teeth 66 



XVI 

To face Page 

33 A Vishavan woman showing dilated car lobes... 67 

34 A Kanikkaran woman with strings of beads round 

her neck ... 67 

35 A Paliyan woman preparing ragi ... 68 

36 A Kanikkaran making fire by hand-drill ... 69 

37 A Muthuvan making fire by flint and steel ... 70 

38 Urali Tree-House ... 72 

39 A Muthuvan Bachelor-Hall ... 72 

40 A Kanapulaya Hut showing seclusion shed 

41 Muthuvan weapons and implements ... 73 

42 A Kanikkaran at his bow ... 73 

43 A Kanikkaran at his pellet bow ... 74 

44 A Muthuvan blowing his blow- pipe ... 74 

45 A Vishavan spearing fish ... 75 

46 A Muthuvan Bamboo comb ... 104 

47 A Thantapulaya puberty ceremony ... 110 

48 Mel-Vaka ... 124 

49 Malayarayan Headman ... 125 

50 Perumparayan 127 

51 A Muthuvan temple . 140 

52 A Malapulaya temple ... 140 

53 A Kanikkaran divining cause of malady with 

stones ... 142 

54 A Kanikkaran at his Kokra ... 142 

55 A miniature Dolmen of the Malayarayan . 141 

56 Madan ... 144 

57 A Kanikkar paddy flat at Neduvangad" ... 149 

58 Terraced cultivation of the Muthuvan in Anjanad 151 

59 A Malapantaram climbing a tree for gathering 

honey ... 151 

60 A Pulaya ploughing the field ... 151 

61 Paraya industry ... 152 

62 Thantapulaya women with their fishing outfit .. 152 

CHARTS 

1 Distribution of Stature ... 5 Sheets 

2 Distribution of Cephalic Index ... 6 Sheets 

3 Distribution of Nasal Index ... 5 Sheets 



INTRODUCTION 

BY 

R. R. MARETT, \M. A.. D. Sc.. D. LITT.. LL. D., F. B. A, 
RECTOR, EXETER COLLEGE, OXFORD. 



INTEODUCTION 



If Indians are to enjoy their heritage of culture, 
they must first take the pains to understand it. 
No doubt they are emotionally in touch with its 
underlying principles, and in that respect start 
with a great advantage over the European scholar. 
But the intellectual approach to an appreciation of 
its meaning calls not only for enthusiasm but for 
method. If science is to take the place of mere 
mythology, the historical facts must be critically 
mastered, and interpretation must conform with 
the rules of evidence. It is just because it is so 
hard to be honest about oneself and one's own 
affairs that autobiography is not always to be 
trusted ; and yet it is obvious that, if he could and 
would bear impartial witness to the truth about his 
own life-history, no one else is in a position to 
compete with the individual himself in respect to 
that most illuminating form of knowledge which 
we know as insight. Just so India needs, and can 
by due preparation achieve, insight into its own 
ethnic individuality, so that its future self -develop- 
ment may be led to afford full expression to the 
native genius. 

This does not mean that India must isolate 
herself from foreign influences, like some ascetic 
who turns his back on the world. The greatest 



XX 

nations are those which have borrowed most. But 
to borrow fruitfully a people must assimilate. In 
other words, its force of inborn character must b/e 
such that, in taking over fresh ideas and customs, 
it does so selectively and in strict accordance with 
its natural bent. What we call race is a potenti- 
ality involving a destiny that may turn out to be 
happy or unhappy according as a right or a wrong 
education conditions the ripening process. India, 
then, must educate herself on broader lines if she 
is to prove her aptitude for the highest civilization 
and her capacity to make her own specific contri- 
bution thereto. Already her best minds are agreed 
that she can afford to be less conservative and more 
constructive or reconstructive in her effort to 
do her best for herself and for the world. 

India is a land of sharp contrasts geogra- 
phical, Komatological, cultural. Truly, it takes all 
sorts to make a sub-continent. Such diversity is all 
to the good if it be subordinated to a unity consist- 
ing not merely in a political but in a spiritual bond. 
India indeed has always had due regard for the 
things of the spirit, and ought therefore to be 
able to draw on her inner resources for the 
requisite ideal that can draw the inhabitants of 
India together and make them one in heart. How 
this is to be brought about it is hardly for me to 
suggest. Clearly, for one thing, the illiteracy of 
tlie masses must be overcome. My personal experi- 
ence, however, has been entirely confined to the 
student class, or rather to its picked representatives 
who find their way to Oxford and there make excel- 
lent use of their talents. Now I have been frequently 



XXI 

struck in talking with these able young men about 
India how little they know about their own country 
an<^ its inhabitants, apart from their own home- 
quarters and home-circle. But thus to conceive 
universal India in domestic terms is to abandon all 
attempt to comprehend it. The science of forestry 
cannot be contained in a flower-pot. 

That this stay-at-home attitude of mind is 
morally no less than intellectually cramping I have 
no doubt. Indeed, I would go so far as to say that 
it is a sign of spiritual backwardness to shun alien 
contacts, implying as it does a lack of the self-con- 
fidence needed in order to meet and overcome the 
unknown. The vision of a larger India, in which 
mutual suspicion has been replaced by a free com- 
panionship in the pursuit of a common good, de- 
mands above all else a certain spaciousness of out- 
look. If the campaign is to begin auspiciously, 
the imagination must first be fired; and, to bring 
this about, the study of anthropology can do much, 
seeing that its scope is as comprehensive as that 
of all the humanities taken together. 

For what a spectacle is provided of the progress 
of mankind, from the hunting stage upwards, by 
India, living India, containing here and now types 
of culture known to Europe only as archaeological 
ghosts. Indeed, the present work, with its wealth 
of accurate observation, is chiefly concerned with 
such humble folk, still dependent on the more or 
less untamed jungle for their sparse subsistence, 
and attached to the higher civilization only in so 
far as it provides them with a few luxuries for 



example, lucifer matches as a substitute for the 
primeval fire^stick. "And of what use are these 
people ?" someone may be inclined to say. I de- 
precate such a question, because it might be turtied 
on the questioner on oneself, in fact. At any 
rate it makes for charity to regard every human 
being as an end in himself. Nay, climatically 
India is capable of mothering a more miscellaneous 
brood than hungrier and less diversified lands can 
ever hope to do; so that an Indian ought to learn 
to rejoice in the sheer diversity of the population 
for which an all-embracing civilization must in 
the fulness of time be worked out, so as to preserve 
all that is most characteristic of the true India. 

For the moment, however, all that I venture 
to commend to the braver spirits taming the young 
men of India is that they should pay more attention 
to the study of their own country, employing 
scientific methods so as to extend their historical 
survey to its widest limits. For this breadth of 
outlook is what anthropology tries to achieve. 
Human history is not especially concerned with 
the civilized man. All of us alike are anthropolo- 
gical specimens; nor is the title of Homo sapiens 
reserved for those who can sport university degrees. 
The so-called savage the "man of the woods," 
as the word literally means is likewise a fellow- 
creature, with a mental constitution much the same 
as ours in all essentials. Here, then, is the oppor- 
tunity for a moral experiment. Can you, with the 
aid of scientific imagination, put yourself in his 



place? So far as you can, sympathy is bound 
to ensue; and not only in India but throughout the 
wcgrld sympathy, as also the charity which is its 
practical expression, is the mark of the man as he 
emerges from the beast. 



Exeter College, E. E. MABETT. 

Oxford. 




A View of Urali Hamlet showing their cultivation. 



THE ABORIGINES OF TRAVANCORE 



CHAPTER I 

INTRODUCTION 

Travaucore forms the south-westernmost part 
of the Deccan and bears the impact of all the racial 
migrations in the Deccan. It is bounded by the 
Western Ghats on the east and the Arabian sea on 
the west. Its total length from north to south 
is 174 miles, and its width from east to west is 75 
miles in the northern boundary and 30 miles at the 
southern extremity. It has an area of 7,625 square 
miles. It presents a remarkable diversity of physi- 
cal conditions and may be broadly divided into three 
distinct belts, each having its own characteristic 
soil^ rainfall, vegetation, and cultivation. These 
are the Highlands, the Midlands, and the Lowlands. 
The Highland division contains a long range of 
mountains with fertile fields at the foot covered 
mostly with thick evergreen forests. Most of the 
reserved forests are in this division, and the por- 
tions let out for cultivation are covered with rubber, 
tea, and cardamoms. The rainfall ranges from 100 
inches annually in the south to more than 200 
inches in the north. This region is most sparsely 
populated. The Midland division is higher in ele- 
vation than the Lowland. The soil is fertile and 
the rainfall varies from 55 to 140 inches per annum. 
The Lowland region has a rainfall varying from 
35 inches in the south to 110 inches in the north, 
G.P.T. LINO. '105. 250. 15-10-1115, 

B 



THE ABORIGINES OF TfcAVANCOBE [VoL. HI. 



Practically, the- whole area has been brought under 
cultivation. 

Geographical Distribution of Ihv Primitive Tribes. 

The Highland region forms the home of the 
underuotcd tribes : 

1. Kanikkar in the forests of A^ilavancode, 
Neyyattinkara, Nedumangad, Pathanapuram, 
Shencotta, and Kottarakara Taluqs. 

2. The Malapantfirams scattered in the higher 
reaches of the Pamba and Aehcncoil rivers, 
and at Thalapara and Kannupalli of the 
Khencotta Taluq. 

o. The Malavetans wJio are found both in the 
Midland and the Highland divisions in the 
taluqs of Pathanamthitta, Pathanapuram, 
Nedumangad, Chirayinkil, and Neyyattin- 
kara. 

4. The Malankuravans who arc found in the 
various parts of the State in the Highland 
and Midland divisions. 

5. The tJralis in the Pirmede and Thodupuzha 
taluqs. 

(5. The Paliyans in the Pirmede taluq. 

7. The Mannans on the Cardamom Hills to 
the south of the Panniyar river in the Pirmede 
and Dcvikulam taluqs. 

8. The Muthuvaus on the Kannan Devan and 
Cardamom Hills in the High Range Division. 

9. The Malapuluyas in Anjanad of Devikulam 
taluq. 



III.] INTRODUCTION 



10. The Vislmvans in the Idyara valley of North 

Travancore. 

The Midland region forms the home of the 
undernoted tribes : 

1. The Malayarayans in the Rani Reserved 
forest of Changanaseri taluq, and Minachil, 
and Thodupuzha taluqs. 

2. The Ullatans in the Rani Reserved forests in 
the Highland region and in various parts of 
the Midland region. 

3. The Paraya found in the Thovala, Agastis- 
waram, Eraniel, Kuimathur, and Kunnathu- 
nad taluqs and on the Cardamom Hills. 

4. The Pulayas in all the taluqs to the north 
of Nanjanad. 

5. The Nayadis in the Karunagapalli taluq and 
in North Travancore. 

In the Lowland region, the Thantapulayas and 
other subdivisions of the Pulayas are found. 

Population 

The primitive tribes were returned in the 
census of 1931 as 1,28,838 of whom 1,15,151 were 
Hindus, 10,780 Christians, and 2,907 belonging to 
tribal religions. Inclusive of the Parayas and the 
Pulayas, 3,93,172 were Hindu, 2,40,273 Christian, 
and 2,907 belonged to tribal religion. A comparison 
of the figures at different censuses demonstrates 
a process of rapid Hinduization taking place among 
these primitive tribes. The number of animists 
returned in 3901 was 28,193. This went down to 
15,773 in 1911, to 12,637 in 1921, and to 2,097 in 1931. 



THE ABORIGINES OP TRAVANCORE 



HI. 



The inference drawn from these figures is that 
the animists are being depleted and that the number^ 
they lose go over chiefly to Hinduism, and to a 
small extent to Christianity. "The opening of a 
large number of estates in forest regions has 
provided facilities for their coming in contact with 
the people of the plains. Some of the tribes are 
coming down to the plains to earn their livelihood. 
In this way as well as by the penetration of civilized 
man in the forests, the primitive tribes are being 
brought under the influence of the Hindus and the 
Christian missionaries."* A statement of their 
population as they stood in 1931 is given in Table I. 

TABLE I. 



No. 


Name of Tribe. 


Hind n H. 


Chris- 
tians 


Tribal 
Religion . 


Total. 


1 


Kanikkaran 


4,565 


53 


2,041 


6,659 


2 


Kuravan 


87,071 


8,158 


66 


95,295 


3 


Malankuti (Vishavan) 


166 


... 


... 


16 


-i 


Ma la pan ta ram 


100 


... 


87 


187 


5 


Malapulayan 


254 


... 


... 


254 


6 


Mala-Urali 


846 


... 


70 


916 


7 


Malayarayan 


2,807 


255 


120 


3,182 


8 


Mannau 


1,215 


i ... 


61 


1,276 


9 


Muthuvan 


1,238 


"... 


63 


1-301 


10 


Navadi 


144 


... 


... 


144 


11 


Pal'iyan 


379 


23 


81 


483 


12 


Para} a (Sambavar) 


70,684 


71,680 


... 


142,364 


13 


Pulaya 


2,07,387 


1,67,813 




365,150 




Than tapu lava 


795 


... 





795 


14 


Ullatan 


4,824 


220 


77 


5,121 


15 


Malavetan en 
Vettnvan 


9,496 
1,251 


2,060 


241 
71 


11-737 
Ii329 



* N. Kunjan Piilai, Tho Travancore Census Report, 1931, Part 1, 
p,387. 



VOX*. HI.J JtfTKODTJOTION 



Effect of Geographical Environment 

9 

The geographical conditions of Travancore aro 

such that the primitive tribes have had to live in 
regions of plenty today and poverty tomorrow. 

"Not because they originated here, but they were 
driven here by past climatic changes and migrations, 
remained here and stagnated here."* Of all the 
tribes, the Malapantarams, the Muthuvans, and the 
tJralis have been least affected by outside influences. 
The remaining tribes have been subject to extra- 
neous influences, and have therefore received an 
infusion of foreign blood and new ideas from the 
more civilized people with, whom they have come 
into contact. This is clearly seen in the Vishavan, 
the Ullatan, the Paliyan, the Malayarayan, the 
Mannan and the Kanikkaran. Owing to the admix- 
ture of foreign blood, these tribes are now approa- 
ching the composite type of civilized humanity. 

Climate determines the crop that man can 
grow in a locality. The Mannan, the Muthuvan, 
the Paliyan, and the Malapulaya who live at an 
altitude of 2,000 to 5,000 feet culivate ragi; while 
the Kanikkaran, the Malayarayan, the Ullatan, the 
Vishavan, and others who live on lower elevations 
cultivate paddy and tapioca. Where climate favours 
the growth of forests, it prolongs the hunter stage 
of development and retards the advance to agri- 
culture. The Malapantaram is the only tribe in 
Travancore still in the hunter stage. 

* Qridith Taylor Race and Environment, p. 178. 



THE ABOKIGINES OF TRAVANCOBE [VOL. III. 



The salubrity of high altitudes is favourable 
to human development. This is exemplified in fte 
Muthuvaris, the Mannans, the Paliyans, the Uralis, 
the Malapulayas, and the Malapantarams. Their 
well-developed lungs, massive chests, and larg^ 
torsos are due to the influence of the rarefied air 
at the high altitude at which they live. The average 
chest girth of the primitive tribes is given in 
Table II. Those on high altitudes evince, however, 

TABLE II. 



No. 


Namo of Tribo 


Average circuinforeno- 1 - 
of chest in Cms. 


I 


Kanikkaran 


74'8 


2 


Malankuti (Vishavan) 


77'2 


3 


Malapautaram 


77*6 


4 


iVialapulavaii 


78*0 


5 


Mala-Urali 


75*5 


G 


Malayarayau 


77'3 


7 


Mai man 


75'8 


8 


Muthuvaii 


77'1 


a 


Nayadi 


75*5 


10 


Paliyan 


75-0 


a 


Paraya (8amlavnr) 


78'2 


12 


Puiaya 


75'5 


13 


Tbaiitapulaya 


76'8 


14 


Ullatan 


73 8 


15 


Mala v eta. n 


74-0 


16 


Malankuravan 


73-8 



an aversion to muscular effort. "As atmospheric 
pressure diminishes perceptably at high altitudes, 
atmospheric oxygen combines with blood corpus- 
cles in the lungs more slowly. According to trust- 
worthy observations, sluggishness and dislike of 




Urali I^ale (curly hair) 



VOL. III.] INTBODUCTIOK 



prolonged effort, muscular or otherwise, is the 
consequence of the slowing down of the blood."* 
The alleged backwardness of dwellers in tropical 
countries is said to be due to excessive heat. "The 
actinic rays of the sun arc believed to stimulate 
the cells to greater activity when they fail on the 
human body. At first it is beneficial, if it goes on 
to excess, the cells apparently break down."t 
Intense heat of long duration, combined with a 
high degree of humidity, is unfavourable to human 
development. It brings about enervation and in- 
creases a craving for stimulants which induces 
habits of alcoholism. The Kanikkar, the Ullatan, the 
Vishavan, and the Malavetan are marked examples 
of devitalization caused by tropical climate. Fur- 
ther, malaria is a disease of tropical and sub-tropical 
countries, whose climate is characterised by alter- 
nate wet and dry seasons. A people devitalised 
by this disease cannot be expected to be energetic 
and active. The sluggishness of the Kanikkaran, 
the Vishavan, and the Ullatan who live in malaria- 
striken areas is due to the baneful effect of this 
disease. 

- Anthropometric Work in India 

Anthropometry was introduced into India by 
Sir Herbert Eisley in his Ethnographic Survey of 
Bengal. This was the first attempt to apply to 
Indian Ethnography the methods of systematic re- 
search sanctioned by the authority of European 

* Vidal clc Blache, p. The Principles* of Human Geography, p. 173. 
t Seniple, E. The Influence of Geographical Environment* p, 624 



THE ABORIGINES OJ? TBAVANCOBE [VoL. III. 



anthropologists. Among these methods the mea- 
surements of physical characters occupy a promi- 
nent place. " No where else in the world do wg find 
the population of a large continent broken up into 
an infinite number of exclusive aggregates, the 
members of which are forbidden by the inexorable 
social law to marry outside the group to which 
they themselves belong. Whatever may have been 
the origin of an earlier development of caste, the 
absolute prohibition of mixed marriages stands 
forth now as its most essential and prominent cha- 
racteristic, and the feeling against such unions is 
deeply engrained. In a society putting an extrava- 
gant value .011 the pride of blood and the idea of 
ceremonial purity, differences of physical type may 
be expected to manifest a high degree of persis- 
tence."* 

Travniicore is one of the States in India in 
which caste has been most elaborately developed, 
and the foregoing remarks fit it with special 
aptness. According to Risley, the analysis of 
data collected by him among 81) tribes and castes 
in Bengal and the United Provinces of Agra and 
Oudh rendered it possible to distinguish three 
types, the Aryan, the Mongolian, and the Dravidian. 
This classification was, at the time, accepted by 
Flower, Beddoe, and Haddon in England, and 
Topiuard in France. Many additions have since 
been made to the number of measurements on 
living subjects by Thurston, Holland, Eickstedt, 
* Bisley Tho People of India, p. 24. 



VOL. III.] INTRODUCTION 



Cipriani, Macfarlane, and by the writer in Travan- 
core. Bisley's work remains and forms the ' key- 
stone of anthropological research in India'. The 
census report of 1901 laid the foundations on which 
has been since based all work that lias been done on 
the racial composition of India. The results of such 
work during the last thirty years have so far 
changed the whole complexion of the problem that 
a restatement of the whole position is now required, 
and his conclusions now require revision. He reco- 
gnized three main racial types of India, the Dra- 
vidiau, the Judo-Aryan arid the Turko-Iraiiian, the 
latter of which was confined to the North- West 
Frontier, and the two former of which were modi- 
fied by two subsidiary elements, the Scythian and 
Mongolian respectively, by introducing the brachy- 
cephajic elements in Eastern and Western India. 
According to Dr. Hutton, "Rislcy's deductions were 
coloured by an erroneous belief in the racial com- 
position of India. In any case, it is necessary to 
clear the deck by throwing overboard some of his 
deductions. The Dravidian, as conceived by him, 
has been the first to go, and has been replaced by 
at least three races, where they recognized only 
one."* ...,.;} 

Anthropometric Data in 1931 Census Report 

In the census of India for 1931, Vol. I, Part III, 
Dr. Hutton presents a mass of anthropometric data 
gathered by Dr. Gruha. This is said to be engaging 

* Hutton, The Census of India 1 931, 1. Part I, p. 440. 



10 THE ABORIGINES Otf TRAVANCOKE [VoL. III. 

the attention of experts in England. According to 
Mr. Enthoven, "Dr. Guha's method presents con- 
siderable difficulty to the ordinary reader owing to 
its very intricate mathematical form of presentation. 
We are given to understand at the beginning of 
Dr. Guha's report that racial discrimination must 
be based on the entire somatic constitution of 
peoples, especially when the data are limited to 
a few characters a simple numerical measure of 
all the differences is therefore required to show 
the degree of resemblance or divergence of two races 
or tribes compared."* Mr. Enthoven also records, 
that the results of anthropometrical observations 
recorded in India up to date have been on the whole 
disappointing, and that the conclusion, which many 
scholars are apt to arrive at, after considering 
the data recorded in this connection, is that, on 
the whole, more progress is likely to be made in 
tracing racial origins in India from a careful com- 
parison and examination of the contents of heads 
rather than by measuring their outsides.* Again, 
Professor Hodson says, "Though the method of 
Coefficient of Racial Likeness is without doubt the 
best available criterion of racial divergence, it is 
nevertheless not an absolute test, but only a rough 
measure of how far on the given data a significant 
resemblance or divergence can be asserted. In 
assigning an equal value to every one of the charac- 
ters, it furthermore neglects the differences in the 

* Enthovon, R, E. Tke PHhnographic Surrey of India published 
in the Jubilee Volume of the Bombay Anthropological 
Society 1938, pp. 59-61. 






' ' 1 






ul 







VOL. III.] INTRODUCTION 11 

relative biological significance of the various charac- 
ters as measures of racial difference. Other factors 
such as the systematic observations of non-measur- 
able characters should therefore be duly consi- 
dered. 7 '* Measurements made on individuals be- 
longing to a race or tribe show definite results 
characteristic of the group. But the question of 
detecting racial differences based on such character- 
istics is by no means easy. A detailed analysis of 
the measurements from the statistical point of view 
has to be made. On an analysis of the means, 
variances, and co-variances, the statistician can 
assert whether the differences between the groups 
are significant or not. Such an intensive study is 
beyond the scope of the present paper and the 
treatment is limited to a formal application of the 
fundamental principle that differences between 
characters are significant if this be greater than two 
and a half times the standard deviation. 

The material available for the determination 
of the racial elements and affinities of the Indian 
peoples may be divided into physical, linguistic, and 
cultural features. According to Sir William Fowler 
physical characters are the best, in fact, the only 
true tests of race, that is of real affinity; language, 
customs, and others may help or give indications, 
but they are often misleading. It was Sir Henry 
Maine who first said that the study of the sacred 
languages of India has given the world the modern 
science of Philology and the modern theory of race. 
The belief that linguistic affinities prove community 

* Hodson, T. C.-Cenaus Ethnography, 1901-1931, p. 11. 



12 THE ABORIGINES OF TRAVABTCORE [VoL. III. 

of descent was one which commended itself alike 
to populations struggling for freedom and to rulers 
in search of excuses for removing a neighbour's 
landmark. According to Sayce, identity or relation- 
ship of languages can prove nothing more than 
social contact. 

Physical Characters 

Coming to physical characters, they are of 
two kinds, definite and indefinite. The indefinite 
characters include colour; texture of skin; the 
colour, form, and position of the eyes; the colour 
and character of the hair ; and the form of the face 
and features. 

1. Colour of the Skin. 

The skin exhibits extreme divergence of colour, 
and serves, with hair, as a classical basis of dis- 
tinction of human races. Anthropologists are 
agreed that primitive men were much alike and 
were dark in colour. It is said that colouration of 
the skin is the conjoint effect of a number of environ- 
mental factors working through physiological pro- 
cesses. The pigment of the skin is found in the 
epidermis, and the influence of light favours its 
formation. In a cold climate, where thermal action 
is weak, a discolouration of the pigment in the 
skin and other parts of the body produces a kind 
of albinism. The Kanikkar, the Ullatans, and the 
Malayarnyans, who live at low elevations, are dark- 
er than the Muthuvans, the Mannans, and the 
Paliyans of the High Eanges. Blondness increases 
appreciably on high hills. " Waitz long ago affirmed 
the tendency of mountaineers to lighter colouring 




c 
erf 



o 




VOL. III.] INTBODUCTIOET 13 

from his study of primitive peoples. This may 
not be entirely due to climatic contrast between 
mountain and plain. Economic poverty of the 
environment and poor food supply have also a 
hand."* Finot thinks that colour is the direct 
effect of the milieu . Woodroff concludes that 
"man is invariably covered with a pigment which 
acts as an armour to exclude the more harmful 
short rays and moreover the amount of pigment is 
in direct proportion to the intensity of light of the 
country to which his ancestors have proved their 
adjustment by centuries or millciiiums of survival 
of health and vigour."! The Thantfipulayas, who 
live in the vast expanse of sand along the coastal 
region, the Pulayas, and the Parayas, who work 
in the rice fields throughout the day, are jet black 
in complexion. "The intensely dark people are 
all dwellers in hot countries, and are all very 
dolichocephalic or long-headed. In almost every 
case, these dark tribes have lived for untold ages 
in hot climates and have perhaps hardly varied 
their climatic enviornment since their original deve- 
lopment somewhere in or near the tropics of the 
old world. "J 

Hair and Eyes 

From one end of India to the other, the hair of 
the great mass of the population is black or dark 
brown. The Kanikkar have curly hair. "The 
Uralis have also very curly hair which is also harsh 

* Soxnplo, E G- The Influence of Geographical Environment, p. 39 
t Dunoan, H. 0.. Race and Population Problems, p. 30. 
% Griffith Taylor Ilace and Environment:. j> 3ft* 



14 THE ABORIGINES OF TKAVANCOBE [VOL. III. 



and in some individuals crisp and kinky."* Curly 
hair lias been noticed by me among the Malavetans, 
the Vishavans, the Ullatans, the Malapantarams, 
and the Paliyans. The hair so curls on itself that 
it seems to grow in separate spiral tufts. Dr. Guha 
has observed the existence of frizzly hair among 
the Kadars and the Pulayans of the Cochin State.f 
Dr. Hutton has recently drawn attention to the 
presence of the Negrito type among the Angami 
Nagas.t To him, the Uralis seem to suggest the 
Negrito as much as the Kadar does. 

The eyes of the primitive tribes are invariably 
dark brown. It is highly probable that brown was 
the primitive eye colour in man. The brown colour 
seems to have been retained, as it affords protec- 
tion for the eye against the strong rays of the sun. 
Rare cases of albinism are noticed among the 
Kanikkar. Such men have white skin, yellow hair, 
and dark blue iris. 

Definite Characters 

1. Stature. Three characters are selected 
under the definite head. They are the stature, the 
proportions of the head, and the nose. Darwin 
holds that "Changes such as size, colour, thickness 
of skin, and hair have been produced through food- 
supply and climate from the external conditions in 

* Button, The Census of ludia, 1931, 1 : India, Pan III, u Elhno. 
graphical" B. p. 11. 

t Hulton, The Census of India, 1931, 1 : India, Part III, " Ethno- 
graphical, " A, p. 1. 

I Hutton, The Census of India, 1931, 1 : India Part I, p. 442. 



VOL. III.] INTRODUCTION 15 

which the forms lived. "* Stature is partly the 
result of feeding and hence of geographical condi- 
tions: "It is a feature which reacts rapidly to 
changing environment, "f In Travancore, the pri- 
mitive tribes are generally shorter than those on 
the plains ; but within the hilly regions, ' ' stature 
is often larger at high than at moderate latitudes, 
which is ascribed to the influence of rigorous 
climate in killing off all but vigorous individuals. ":(: 
Sir Arthur Keith says that "the greater activity 
of the pituitary gland gives the Caucasian his 
height of stature, bulk of body, prominent chin, 
strong eye-brow ridges, and pronounced nasali- 
zation. " Improvement in the quality or abun- 
dance of food or in other conditions has been 
supposed to lead on the other hand to increase 
of stature .fl This may be true of the Malayarayans, 
the Muthuvans, the Uralis and others. The average 
stature of the primitive tribes of Travancore is 
given in Table III. The greater height of the Mala- 
pulayas, the Piiliyans, and the Muthuvans may be 
due to the more vigorous functioning of the pitui- 
tary gland at higher elevations. "Excessive tall- 
ness is the result of inherited excessive activity of 
the pituitary gland, the factors for tallness being 
mostly recessive due to the absence of inhibition to 
prolonged growth.'*** Davenport says that, "the 

* Sotqph, H.C., The Influence* of Geographical Environment, p. 34. 

t Griffith Taylor Rac<3 and Environment, p. 38. 

t Rialey, The People of India, p. 31. 

$ Duncan, H G. Race and Population Problems, p. 33. 

H Ruggles Gates, Heredity iti Man, p. 42. 

** Ruggles Gates Heredity in Man, p. 50. 



16 



THE ABORIGINES OF TRAVANCOBE 



III. 



rugged hills of Scotland harbour a race that are 
relatively giants. Conditions in life cannot account 
for the difference, there is a difference in blood."* 

TABLE III. 



No. 


Name of 
Tribe. 


Number 1 
measured. 1 


(-> HO 


Percentage 


my. 


Short 


Medium. 


Tall. 


1 


Paraya 
(Sambavar) . 


27 


164-33 


6-66 


... 


16-67 


40-00 


43-33 


2 


Malapulayau 


32 


158-84 


8-28 


18-75 


15-63 


60-00 


15 62 


3 


Paliyun 


28 


157-32 


7-60 


10-71 


4,2-86 


32-14 


14-29 


4 


Mannan 


42 


151-90 


6-02 


23-81 


66-67 


9-72 


... 


5 


Muthuvan . 


90 


155-29 


7-44 


11-11 


56-67 


31-11 


I'll 


6 

7 

8 


Mai ay a- 
rayan 

M a Japan - 
tar am 

tJrali 


132 

57 
121 


167*83 

154-26 
155 69 


6-02 

5-4,9 
6*51 


3-76 

17-54 
7-44 


52-6} 

61-41 
63*72 


38-35 

21'05 
36*36 


6-26 
2*48 


9 


Viahavan 


21 


155-81 


5-96 


9*52 


57-14 


23-57 


4*77 


10 


Nayadi 


16 


152-96 


6-06 


25*00 


62-50 


12-50 




11 


Ullatan 


88 


153*68 


4-63 


9*09 


69-32 


21-59 


;.. 


12 


Malaii- 
kuraran 


120 


153-62 


t-86 


10 83 


70-83 


17-50 


0-84 


13 


Malavglan . 


63 


163-60 


5-35 


15-87 


65-08 


19-05 


... 


1* 


Pvilayan 


95 


153-47 


6-66 


17-89 


58-05 


22-11 


1-96 


15 


Thant-i- 
pulayan . 


38 


152-63 


4*69 


13 16 


78-95 


7'89 




16 


Kanikkar . 


240 


153 42 


6-78 


16-25 


66-25 


16 25 


1-25 



* Davenport, Heredity in Relation to Eugenics, p. 40. 



VOL. III.] INTRODUCTION 17 

The High Eanges of Travancore, whose elevation 
ranges from 3,000 to 5,000 feet harbour the Mala- 
pulayas, the Paliyans, the Muthuvans, and the Ura- 
lis, who are taller than the tribes in the low country, 
who are devitalised by malaria. The Southern 
Parayas (Sambavars) are the tallest because of the 
dry healthy climate and the high nutritive content 
of their food. Dwarfing of the type which produces 
general reduction in size is said to be the result of 
unfavourable conditions or general inhibition to 
growth. The effect of a scanty and uncertain 
food supply is seen in the low stature of the Kanit 
kar, the Malavetan, the Malankuravan, the Pulaya, 
the Ullatan, and the Nayadi, because they cease to 
grow early. According to Duncan's classification 
of stature, groups classified as short are between 
SS 1 ^ and 62*4 ; medium between 62*4 and 66 inches ; 
tall between 66 and 67*4. Those classified as pygmy 
are not over 58y inches high. Judged by this 
standard, most of the primitive tribes of Travancore 
are short. The largest percentage below 58y^ inches 
is 31-58 among the Malapantarams. 

2. Shape of the Head. According to Bisley, 
the prevalent type of Peninsular India seems to be 
long-headed, short heads appearing only in the 
western zone of the country. The primitive tribes 
of Travancore are long-headed with the exception 
of the Malapantarams, the Nayadis, and the Para- 
yas. The dolichocephaly is of a primitive type, 
fo^* the vault of the head is low and the direction 
of the brain backward. They show a prognathous 



18 



THE ABOKIGINES OF TBAVANCOBE [VOL. III. 



face occasionally. The Malapantarams, the Naya- 
dis and the Parayas are mesocephalic. 29-73 per 
cent, of the Malapantarams are dolichocephalic, 
64-86 per cent mesocephalic, and 541 per cent, 
brachycephalie. It is considered that the basis of 
the Negrito race was probably brachycephalie or 
at least nieso. The Malapantarams are in the 
hunzting stage of civilization. According to the 
definition of Quatrefage, the Negritos are brachy- 
cephalie. It seems that admixture with a primi- 
tive dolichocephalic race has affected the general 
shape of the head. They have curly hair. They 
may be the survivals of a Negrito type. Thte 
average cephalic index of the tribes is given in 
Table IV. The largest percentage of dolichoce- 
plmly is among the Muthuvaii and the Urali. 

TABLE IV. 







!- 73 


v .2 


t3 S 


PC 






V.TV 


\fnrv\ft iif 4-1 , T'niVi 


J5 8 


eg j o> 


ce-2 

r ^ 








CIO* 


.Nanae ot the In be 


S T' 


C Q J '^ 


fl-S 












^| 


S5o^ 




Dolicho 


Meso 


Bra- 






^ 










chy 


1 


Malavetan 


63 


73-85 


3-29 


61-29 


38-71 




2 


Malankiuavan 


120 


74.33 


3-22 


58-33 


35*K4" 


5**83 


3 


KSnikkar 


240 


7-t 00 


3-33 


57 32 


38 '6 1 


4-07 


4 


Muthuvjin 


90 


72-&0 


3-07 


70 14 


22-73 


1M3 


5 


Ulliltan 


88 


74-10 


3*03 


fir -92 


32-58 




6 


tJrali 


121 


73 05 


2-H6 


73-02 


26-08 


... 


7 


Malapulayan 


32 


74 38 


2-63 


rt4 55 


36 '36 


9 % Oi 


8 


Paliyan 


28 


74*46 


3-4) 


50 00 


4ti 41 


3'57 


9 


Pulayan 


1)5 


74*92 


2-09 


47-92 


47-92 


4-16 


10 


Malayarjiyan 


132 


73-82 


3-26 


T>3-36 


32 82 


3*82 


11 


Yiahavun 


21 


74 00 


2-i9 


60 67 


28 -7 


4-76 


12 


Manuaii 


42 


74-27 


2-72 


53-49 


39-47 


5-27 


13 


Thautapulayan 


38 


74-03 


3-66 


55-26 


39-47 


6-27 


14 


Mnlapantavatn 


70 


75-96 


2-5; 


29 73 


64*86 


5-41 


15 


Nayadi 


16 


77*59 


2 ' < J4 


12 50 


68 '75 


1875 




> ( Satiib%vnr 


30 


78-40 


3 1 1 


6 *i>7 


63-33 


30 '00 


16 


ara **1?apaya 


30 


76-95 


2-97 


27 27 


57*58 


15-15 



III.] INTRODUCTION 19 



Nasal Index 

Risley finds in India that the nasal index ranks 
higher as a distinctive character than the stature 
or even the cephalic index. The nasal index is 
accepted by all anthropologists as one of the best 
tests. According to Topinard, there are two types 
of nose, the low, broad and flat. As a rule, the 
more prominent a nose is, the narrower it is; the 
flatter it is, the broader it becomes. The depth 
increases with the prominence, and narrows and 
diminishes with the flattening and the broadening.* 
The Big- Veda employs the word 'anasa' or nose- 
less to the Dasyus which designation means ' thieves 
or demons.' The broad type of nose of the primi- 
tive tribes is their striking characteristic. The 
physical configuration of the country, the vast 
stretches of fever-haunted jungles, the absence of 
roads, and the complete social organization of the 
primitive tribes protect them from the intrusion 
of foreign influence. Where races with different 
nasal proportions are intermixed, the index marks 
the degree of crossing that has taken place. The 
average nasal index of the tribes is given in Table V. 
The Malavetan, the Malankuravan, the Kanikkar, 
the Muthuvan, the Urali, the Malapulaya, the 
Ullatan, and the Malayarayan have distinctly 
platyrhine nose, while the Mannan, the Paliyan, the 
Vishavan, and the Sambavar border on platyrhiny. 
The remaining tribes are mesorhine. The percent- 
age of platyrhiny is also indicated in the above 
table. It is very high among the Malankuravan, 

* Haddon, A. C-, Tho Races of Man p. 87. 



THE ABOBIGlNES Otf TBAVANCOBE [Voii. III. 



TABLE V. 



No. 
1 


Name of Tribe. 


Number 1 
Measured. 1 


fJI 


Standard 1 
Deviation . I 


Percentage 


Lepto Mrso- 
rhiny. rhiny. 


Plftty 
rhiny. 


Malavetan 


03 


89'77 


7-76 


1*61 


25- 28 


75 81 


2 


Malankuruvan 


120 


90.80 


8-22 




.9-33 


80-07 


3 


Kanikkar 


2-10 


89-91 


7-88 


0-43 


24-30 


75-21 


4 


Muthuvan 


90 


88-71 


5-75 


... 


22-86 


77'14 


5 


Ullatan 


88 


80-11 


6-86 




22-73 


77-27 


6 


Orali 


121 


80*75 


8 '09 


1-67 


44-17 


54-16 


7 


MiilapuUiyan 


32 


85-54 


6 51 


... 


45-45 


54-55 


8 


Vishavan 


21 


83-81 


6-28 


... 


47-72 


5238 


9 


Pulayan 


95 


84-52 


7-96 


4-12 


40'21 


55*67 


10 


Paliyan 


28 


83-68 


6-94 


... 


57-14 


42'86 


11 


Malay arayan 


133 


85'03 


8-20 


1 3-76 


38^35 


57-89 


12 


Man nan 


42 


84-72 


a- 14 


4-65 


48 '84 


46-51 


13 


Malapanlaruin 


76 


81-72 


9-04 


9-23 


49 23 


41-54 


14 


Than tap ul ay an 


38 


77 ' 97 


6-95 8-82 


70-59 


20-59 


15 


Nayfidi 


16 


77-22 


7-41 


i2-50 


75 -OQ 


12-50 


16 


(Samba var 
Paraya 


30 
30 


84-83 

81-52 


8'23 


6-07 

i 

6'60 


43 33 


50-00 
3.V33 



the Muthuvan, the Ullatan, the Kanikkar, and the 
Malavetan. To sum up, short stature, low fore- 
head, flat nose, and dark complexion are the chief 
characteristic features of the primitive tribes of 
Travancore. ^ 




a 

s 
o 

*~rt 

2 



CHAPTER II 

TKADITIONS OF ORIGIN 
Introduction 

Tradition is the product of conceptual thought. 
The products of the thinking of past generation are 
stored up, transmitted, and retained. Additions 
are made to the store and improvements are made 
in the method of storings. Tradition is thus 
cumulative.* Progress in tradition may be sti- 
mulated by contact of man with man and race with 
race. The greater the contact, the more quickly 
and easily is the existing mass of tradition dis- 
seminated throughout any society. The influence 
of contact of race with race has given rise to a 
large number of traditions among the primitive 
tribes. The course of past migrations of some of 
these tribes is now proposed to be traced through 
oral traditions now current among them. The 
Kanikkar, the Muthuvans, the Maiiiians, and the 
Uralis entertain traditions of having come from 
the adjoining district of Madura or Tiiinevelly. 
No tribe has such a wealth of traditions of origin 
as the Kanikkar of South Travancore. They have 
been handed down from generation to generation 
in popular songs which they sing now. 

; Kanikkar 

The Kanikkar of Kottur in Neyyattinkara 
taluq sing a chattu song on their past history. It 
recounts that they formerly settled down in Kalakad 

* Carr Saunders The Population Problem p. 414, 



22 THE ABORIGINES OF TRAVANCORE [Voii. III. 

and Kallidakurichi in Tinnevelly district. There 
were 72 Kani hamlets under three chieftains, 
Virappan Arayan of Viranelli Kotta,, Sithangan 
Arayan of Chennalur Kotta, and Adichan Arayan of 
Alanthara Kotta. In olden times, the Attingal 
chief possessed rights over 'Kalakad and Kallida- 
kurichi'. The failure of the Kanikkar to appear 
hefore the chief (Ponnum Perumal) for three years 
led to the despatch of his minister, Mathutti Pillai, 
to Kalakad with a Eoyal Command, directing the 
appearence of the three hill-chieftains before him 
immediately. In obedience to the royal call, the 
three chieftains went to Attingal and made presents 
of honey, ivory, tiger-skin, leopard-skin, bamboo- 
seeds, and other things to His Highness. 

His Highness was so much pleased that he 
conferred on Virappan Arayan the title of Vira 
Marthandan Arayan and gave the chief profuse 
presents. It was also ordered that Vira Marthan- 
dan Arayan might collect a tax from the Kanikkar 
of the 72 hamlets. His Highness was about to 
arrange for the feeding of the hill-chieftains and 
their followers, when Vira Marthandan informed 
him that they would themselves cook their food and 
that they would be satisfied, if they were given 
provisions. These were accordingly supplied. 
While they were on thteir way to cook their food, 
they were accosted by Ohennan and Chakki (Chan- 
nans by caste) who invited them to their home. 
There they ate the food given by Chakki. His 
Highness, who was informed of the incident, said, 
"Mannuchaiman Malayarasan, " which means "by; 



VOL. III.] TRADITIONS OF ORIGIN 23 



your association with Channan, you have fallen in 
my estimation. You deserve to be only Mala- 
yarayan or lord of the hills". 

Vira Marthandan Arayan reached Kalakad, 
and collected and enjoyed the tax from 72 hamlets 
as ordered by the Attingal chief. He tlien decided 
to celebrate his installation ceremony as Chief of 
the Kanikkar, and issued invitations to Adi Pandi 
Pandiyan, Mid-Pandi Pandiyan, and Thala-Pandi 
Pandiyan, and others to the ceremony. Adi 
Pandi Pandiyan scoffed at the invitation and jeer- 
ingly sent word that lie would attend the ceremony, 
if the Chief's sister were given to him in marriage. 
This reply provoked Vira Marthandan so much that 
he decided to divert the waters of the Kothayar, the 
Paraliyar, the Manimuthiar, and the Chemburanthar 
from flowing into Adi-Pandi by constructing a 
dam. Some water still trickled to Adi-Pandi. The 
medicine-man (Plathi) told Vira Marthandan that, 
if the dam were bismeared with the blood of his 
sister, Karimpandi, no water would flow to Adi- 
Pandi. No less a sacrifice was demanded of Vira 
Marthandan, but he did not flinch from carrying 
out the words of the medicine-man. The insult 
was so keenly felt that the blood of his sister was 
poured on the dam, and no water trickled down 
eastwards thenceforward. This brought famine to 
Adi-Pandi. After ascertaining the cause, the Pan- 
diyan Chief repaired to the Attingal Chief, and 
sought relief. Mathutti Pillai was sent to Kalakad 
to break the dam with an elephant and allow water 



24 THE ABOBIGINES OF TKAVAKCOBE [VOL. III. 

to flow eastward. Vira Marthandan tried to dis- 
suade him from doing it, but his words were not 
heeded. When Mathutti Pillai proceeded to break 
the dam with the elephant, Vira Marthandan dis- 
charged an arrow and killed the elephant. Mathutti 
Pillai committed suicide saying, "you have killed 
your sister and my elephant. I too shall end my life 
here." This tragic event enraged the Adi-Pandi 
Pandiyan and he declared war against the Kanikkar. 
The latter were defeated and their chieftains com- 
mitted suicide. But some of the Kanikkar escaped to 
Travancore and are said to be the earliest Kani 
settlers in this country. The memory of Mathutti 
Pillai is enshrined in their religious songs, and 
offerings are made to him even to this day. This 
is the tradition current among the Kanikkar about 
their emigration into Travancore. 

The history of Travancore tells us that "the 
famous warrior-kings, Sri Mankoda Bhuthala Vira 
Sri Viraladaya Marthanda Varma, conquered the 
whole of Tinnevelly district from the Pandiyans 
about 700 M. E. (1531 A. D.) and married a Chola 
Princess, Cholakula Valli, who brought with her 
the district of Calcaud as dowry. The dam across 
the Kothayar which stands even now under the 
name Virapuliana is said to be erected at the 
period."* Kalakad witnessed several vicissitudes 
of fortune in later times. It now forms part of the 
British dominion in India. According to the tradi- 
tion current among the Kanikkar, they were in 

* V. Nagamiah. Tha Travancore State Manual, Vol. I, p. 37. 




a 
o 

a 



I 

I 



VOL. III.] TRADITIONS Otf ORIGIN 25 



Kalakad when it formed part of Travancore, and 
they emigrated to this country as a result of their 
defeat in the war with the Adi-Pandi Pandiyans. 

The Muthuvans 

The Muthuvans 011 the Cardamom Hills believe 
that they were immigrants from Madur& and that 
they were driven to the hills owing to internal dis- 
sensions. It may possibly have been at a time 
when the Telugu Naickans took possession of Bodi- 
naickaiiur in the fourteenth century A. D. The 
Muthuvans who came to the High Ranges of 
Travancore via Bodinaickanur carried their child- 
ren on their back when they climbed up the Ghats 
and hence they ha,ve come to be known as Muthuvans 
(Mutfeuku moaning back). This is one version. 
Another version is that, when they left Madura, 
they carried on their back the goddess Meenakshi, 
and are therefore called Muthuvans. The Muthuvan 
males even now carry loads on their back, the 
females, their babies. 

The Mannans 

"The Mannaus also claim that they came from 
Madura to the Cardamom Hills of Travancore. 
Being fond of animal food, they thought that they 
conlcl live comfortably on the Travancore Hills, 
which abounded in sambar, black monkey, and 
other wild animals. The quest for food is, there- 
fore, said, to be the cause of their immigration. 
Another version is that they were formerly depen- 
dents pf the ting of Madura. Owing to internecine 
dissensions, they were obliged to leave Madura 



26 THE ABORIGINES OF TKAVANCORE [VOL. III. 



under the leadership of a chief known as Poonjat 
Eaja. They entered the hills via Cumbummettu 
and settled down in various parts of the Cardamom 
Hills. They also installed their deiy, Chokka- 
iiadar on the Chokkanad peak, and Chantiyat Amrna 
at Ayyapancoil. It is said that they once owned 
a small tract of land near Cumbum. It was leased 
to the people of that place and the produce realised 
was used for temple service by the Varayil Kizil 
Mannau. This land was lost through litigation. 
Tradition has it that one of the former Rajas of 
Poonjat nominated three Mannans as his agents for 
the management of his dominion. One of them was 
installed at Talliaramalai with a silver sword as 
his badge, the second, Gopura Mannan was in- 
stalled at Udumbunchola, Since the Cardamom 
Hills passed into the hands of the Government of 
Travancore, they owe only a nominal allegiance 
to the Poonjat Chief, who is still held in veneration 
by them. 

The Gratis 

The Urfdis claim that they were the depen- 
dents of the king of Madura, and that their duty 
was to hold umbrellas during State processions. 
In ancient times, many of the parts included in the 
Tliodupuzha taluq belonged to the king of Madura. 
Once when the king came to Neriamangalam, the 
ancestors of the Uralis are said to have accom- 
panied him and were probably left there to rule 
the locality.* This fits in with another account 
that is current among them. Formerly there was 

* N- Subramania Iyer The Travancore Census "Report 1901, p. 350. 



VOL. III.] TRADITIONS OJF ORIGIN 27 



a chief known as Nedittu Thampuran ruling over a 
tract of about four square miles of land called 
Nedittu in the Arakulam hills of Thodupuzha Kange. 
The Uralis were his vassals. They were fond of 
the sweet toddy drawn from Azhathengu (Arenga 
Wightii) and used to tap the trees for it. The chief 
observed the tapping of the palm for some days 
and desired to drink some of the juice. He there- 
fore climbed the tree unobserved for a few days 
and drank the juice. As the Uralis were not 
getting the usual quantity of juice, they grew sus- 
picious, and resolved to keep watch over the tree. 
They found the chief climbing the tree and drawing 
the juice. Praia Urali discharged an arrow at the 
chief. It did not strike him, but hit the bottom 
of the bamboo tube. The chief was infuriated. 
He descended from the tree and said, "May 
you adiyars (slaves) remain prosperous. May 
those who aimed at my life suffer extinction." The 
chief then left for Thodupuzha. The Uralis con- 
sider that they were his vassals and pay homage 
to him in his temple at Nedittu. The Mannan s 
are said to have held sway over the Uralis in former 
times. They were a source of terror to the tjralis. 
and any Urali who remained in a tree-house on the 
arrival of the Raja Mannan was caught and severely 
chastised. The Eaja Mannan used to be the arbiter 
of their disputes, and they paid him 4 chuckrams 
and one para of paddy each annually, but, since 
they passed into the tutelage of the Government of 
Travancore, they stopped this payment. 



28 THE ABORIGINES OF TBAVANCOBE [VOL. III. 



The Paliyans 

The Paliyans of Vandamet say that they were 
living in Madura, and a PantHram told them that 
they would find it congenial to go and live on the 
Cardamom Hills in Travancore which were un- 
inhabited. On hearing this, they came to the Car- 
damom Hills and settled down at Vandamet, Ano- 
ther tradition current among them is that a Kallar 
of Madura had two wives, and that, when some 
dissensions arose, his children by the second wife 
fled to Sankurandamalai, fearing molestation. 
Those who did not fall a victim to the marauders 
came to be known as Paliyans. They came to the 
Cardamom Hills via Bodinaickanur. In memory of 
this connection, the Kallars of Madura refrain 
from doing any harm to the Paliyans. These two 
tribes interdine, but do not intermarry. A Kallar 
will not allow a Paliyan guest to depart without 
being fed. The Paliyans pride themselves on being 
called Kattukallars. The Kallars proper are known 
as Nattukallars. 

The Vishavans 

The Vishavans seem to think that they are 
autochthonous, but the names of some of their 
exogamous clans indicate that they came from 
Adirapalli in the Cochin State; for example, the 
Maringathukars are those who came from Marin- 
gath near Adirapalli. 

Conclusion 

The traditions current among some of the 
primitive tribes as to their origin and migration to 



VOL. III.] TRADITIONS OF ORIGIN 29 



Travancore Hills have been described so far; but 
the people of thie plains generally ascribe the 
colonization of the hills to sage Agastya who came 
from the north. Tt is said, "that sage Agastya 
repaired to Dwaraka (Tamil Tuvarupathi), and 
taking with him eighteen kings of the line of Sri 
Krishna, eighteen families of Vels or Velirs, and 
others, moved to the south with the Aruvalar tribes 
who appear to have been the remnants of the 
Kurumbas.* The Kurumbas appear to be the 
remnants of a great and widespread people, who 
erected the dolmens, and form one of the Pre- 
Uravidian tribes of South India.f Agastya had 
the forests cleared and built up kingdoms settling 
there the people he brought with him. This 
migration is said to have taken place about 1075 
B. C. Popular tradition supports the theory of 
Agastya's conquest of South' India. The foot- 
prints of Agastya in his adventurous journey to 
the south are said to be visible at various places 
and the stages of his travels are marked by the 
little Asramas (hermitages) he set upon his way. 
The Travancorean holds in great veneration the 
Agastyar peak, the highest peak of the Western 
Gh&ts, where Agastya is said to live even today, 
and his image is installed and worshipped at the 
Olakarivu waterfall on the Asambu hills in Thovala 
taluq, at Marutuamala near Cape Comorin, at Na- 
gercoil, and other places. The adventures of Agas- 
tya are relevent to the extent that he is said to have 



*Srinivsa lyeugar, M,, The Tamil Studies, pp. 45 and 46. 
tKeane, A. H , Man Past and Present, p. 169. 



30 THE ABORIGINES OF TRAVANCOBE [VOL. III. 



played a conspicuous part in reclaiming primeval 
forests in Southern India and making them fit fo'r 
human habitation. Even to this day, the Kanikkar 
of South Travancore curse their enemies by swearing 
by Agastya and make annual offerings to him at 
Agastyar peak. 

The Epic and Puranic legends contain tradi- 
tions relating to the physical characters of the abori- 
gines (Nishadas). "The Bhagavata Purana des- 
cribes the Nishada as black like crows, very low- 
statured, short-armed, having high cheek bones, 
low topped nose, red eyes, and copper-coloured 
hair."* His descendents are distributed over the 
hills and forests. The Anamalai Hills in Southern 
India form the refuge of a whole series of broken 
tribes. They are characterised by dark hair, 
short stature, and broad nose. Since the physical 
features of the Puranic Nishadas indicate their 
affinities to the so called Pre-Dravidians, Mr. 
Chanda considers the short-statured and broad- 
nosed jungle tribes as the modern Nishadas re- 
presenting the old Nishada race.f It now remains 
to be seen what light anthropometry has to throw 
on the matter. 



* Chanda, K. P-, The Indo-Aryan Races, Part I. p. 5. 
t Do* Do. Do. p. 9. 



CHAPTEE III. 

BACIAL AFFINITIES 
Early Views on Racial Origins 

The Nishada was reckoned by Sir Herbert 
Risley as belonging to the "Dravidian Race", occu- 
pying the oldest geological formation in India, the 
medley of forest-clad hills, terraced plateau, and 
undulating plains which stretch from the Vindhya 
Hills to Cape Comorin. He is recognised every- 
where by his black-skin, his squat figure, and the 
Negro-like proportions of the nose. Risley looked 
to the researches of Thurston to define and classify 
the jiumerous sub-tribes. "In describing the Hindu 
type Topinard divided the population of the 
Indian peninsula into three strata, the Black, the 
Mongolian, and the Aryan. The remnants of the 
first are found at the present time shut up in the 
mountains of Central India under the names of 
Bhils, Mahairs, Gkmds and Khonds; and in the 
south under the names of Yanadis, Maravars, 
Kurumbas, and Veddahs. Its primitive characters 
apart from its dark colour and low stature are 
difficult to discover, but travellers do riot talk of 
woolly hair in India."* Mr. Thurston continues, 
"that there is much that speaks in favour of the 
view that the Australians and the Dravidians 
sprang from a common main branch of the human 



* Thurston, " The Pravidian Problem" The Madras Museum 
Bulletin, 2, No. 3, p. 197- 



32 THE ABOKIGINES OF TBAVAKCOEB [Voi* HE. 



race. The Veddahs of India and Ceylon, whom 
one might call Pre-Dr^yidians, would represent 
an offshoot of the main stem. Southern India 
was once the passage ground by which the ancient 
progenitors of the Northern and Mediterranean 
races proceeded to the parts of the globe which they 
now inhabit. In this part of the world as in others, 
antiquarian remains show the existence of peoples 
who used, successively implements of uuwrought 
stone, of wrought stone, and of metal fashioned 
in the most primitive manner. These tribes 
have also left cairns and stone circles indicating 
burial places. It has been usual to set them 
dqwfl as earlier than Dravidian. It has been stated 
that the wild tribes of Southern India are physio- 
logically of an earlier type than the Dravidian 
tribes."* V i 

Ruggeri 

Sergi rightly separates from the Dravidians 
a highly platyrhine type, of a nature less than of 
medium type showing the greatest affinity with the 
Veddahs, and together with the second type he also 
perceives a third in the peninsula especially among 
the Kad^rs, which type is also platyrhine, and of a 
low stature, but with short and woolly hair and a 
Negroid face. They are the remnants respectively 
of the Australoids and the Negritos, who were 
afterwards more closely placed in relief by Biasutti. 



* Thurston, " The Dravidian Problem," The Madras Museum 
Bulletin 2, No. 3, p. 190. 



III.] BACIAL AFFINITIES 33 



The following ethnic stratification is given for 
India*: 

3. Negritos. 

2. Pre-Dravidians. 

3. Dravidians. 

4. Tall dolichocephalic (Mesopotamic) 
elements. 

5. Dolichocephalic Aryans. 

6. Brachycephalic Leucoderms. 

" Our theory is that the Dravidians are Australoid- 
Veddahs, and are not to be confused with an oriental 
extension of the Mediterranean race which Bisley 
thinks, or with Elliot Smith a Brown race whose 
anthropological consistency is somewhat equivocal. 
It would be useful to see what physical characters 
are presented by the pre-historie skulls of India, 
especially of the Bayana type which Mitra refers 
to as of Pre-Dravidic Veddah type, and those of 
Adichanallur which, according to Lapicque, but in a 
different sense from others, that is, Negroid."* 
"Ruggeri mentions four skulls from the vicinity of 
Madras with a head index of 60. Thurston des- 
cribes them as prognathous and with the receding 
forehead of the negro rather than of the Veddah. 
These skulls are of considerable interest in con- 
nection with the affinities of the lower Melanesian 
negro with the African negro; for not many links 
are known in the wide extent separating the two 
groups. "f The Pre-Dravidians were followed by a 
finer type; although dark-skinned, the nose was 

* Ruggnrr, The First Outlines of a Systematic Anthropology 

of Asia, p. 53. 
t Griffith Taylor -Race and Environment, p. 182. 



THE ABORIGINES OF TRAVANCOBE [VOL. HL 



less wide, and as deep at the root as in the Veddahs, 
and the profile much less prognathous, really Almost 
orthognathous. It is the Dravidian type akin to 
the Ethiopian (not Negroid). "They are found 
in their purest form in the South Indian jungles. 
Of these are the Kota, Badaga, and Kurumba peo- 
ples of the Nilgiri mountains of South India. They 
have leptorhine noses (index 75) and are some- 
what taller than most of the so called Dravidians 
with a nasal index of 84 to 94. Richards points 
out that the Dravidian is more leptorhine than the 



If we arrange a series of measurements of the 
jungle tribes in the order of descending nasal index, 
it may be seen that, as we advance from platyrhiny 
to mesorhiny, there is an increase in the proportion 
per cent of the Dravidian type, which we considered 
to be raesorhine. I give below the results of my 
TABLE I. 



Wo. 1 


Tribe. N 


m- Stature 
er. in cms. 


Cephalic 
Index, 


Nasal 
Index, 


1 


Paniyan 2 


,5 157-4 


74-0 


95 M 


& ' 


Kadir 2 


H ; 157-7 


72-9 


89-8 


3 


Kurumba . 2 


2 157-9 


76-5 


86'1 


* 


Sfrolacra. 5 


50 1S9-3 


74*9 


85 ! 


5 


Irula (Nilgins) 2 


,5 I5&-8 


76-8 


84-9 


6 


Malavetan 2 


15 154- 8 


73** 


84 '6 


1 


KAnikkar i 2 


155 -t 


73.4 


84*(> 


8 


Paliyau 2 


6 150-9 


75 7 


83'0 





'^Trali : T 


7 159-5 


74-6 


0'1 



Typiowl Trfbes of Homo Indo-^Africanus 


i 


Kota 


26 1 l2.f) 


74," 


77-2 


2 


Badaga 


40 1640 


71*7 




3 


Kurumba of Mysore ., 


50 168 *> 

' 


77'5 


73-5 



* Qriffitli Taylor Haoe *nd .Environment, p. 182. 



in.] 



BAOIAL 



35 



study based on extensive measurements of the 
primitive tribes of Travancore. Comparing the 
two summaries, one can understand at a glance 
how the intercrossing of the jungle tribes has 
the effect of diminishing the platyrhine feature 
as seen among the Tamil Irulans whose nasal 
index comes down to 804. Thurston expressly 

TABLE II. 



Fo. 


Name cf Tribe. 


Number 
Measured. 


vStature 
in Cms. 


Cephalic 
Index. 


Kusal 
Index. 


I 


Ma lave tail 


6S 


153MH) 


73-85 


89*77 


2 


Malankuravari 


120 


153 '(52 


74-33 


'.(> 77 


3 


Kauikkar 


2*0 


in3-*2 


74-00 


81) *i)l 


4 


Muthiivan 


90 


1552 


72*50 


88'71 


5 


Uliatan 


88 


153-08 


7* '10 


89-11 


e 


fTrali 


121 


155-8!) 


73-05 


86-75 


7 


Malapulayan 


32 


158 84 


74 38 


85-54 


8 ' 


Vishavan . 


21 


155*81 


74-00 


83'81 


9 


Pulayau 


J)5 


153-47 


74'92 


84-52 


10 


Thantapulayan 


38 


152-53 


74-03 


77*9T 


11 


I'aliyaii 


28 


157 32 


74-4(> 


83-68 


12 


Malayarayau 


132 


157-83 


73-82 


85-03 


13 


Mannar 


42 


151-00 


74.27 


84-72 


14 


Malapantaram 


7<5 


154-26 


75-05 


81-72 


15 


Nayadi 


lf> 


152-06 


77-59 


77-22 


16 


( Sambavav 
( Paraya 


30 
30 


164-33 
153'33 


78-40 
76*95 


84*33 
81*52 



THE ABOKIGltfES OF tEAVANCOBB 



111. 



notes the physical change that takes place when 
the tribes leave the jungle and approach the cities. 
His observation on the nasal index of the Kanikkar 
is given in Table III. It will be seen that the 

TABLE III. 



Typo. 


Avorago Nasal 
Index. 


Maximum Nasal 
Index. 


Minimum 
Nasal Index. 


Jungle 
Domesticated 


84 (> 
81'2 


105*0 
90*5 


72*3 
70*8 



nasal index of the jungle Kanikkar is higher 
than that of the domesticated Kanikkar of ; the 
plains. This is an instance of primitive short, 
dark-skinned, and platyrhine type changing as a 
result of contact metamorphosis towards leptorhiny. 
A great elevation in nasal index is observed 
among the tribes of Chota Nagpur and Western 
Bengal. "Biasutti includes their habitat in the 
area where a purer Veddaic substratum has 
persisted. Denikcr recognises that the Veddahs 
are tli6 remnants of a very primitive population, 
whose physical type is most approached by a platy- 
rhinous variety of the Dravidian race thus indi- 
cating precisely the Santals, the Mundas, the Kols, 
and the Bliumij. We prefer to confine the Dra- 
vidian race to the mesorhine type. In such manner 
we confer on the Pre-Dravidians the present nu- 
merical preponderance, and their importance in the 
ethnical stratification of India augments propor- 
tionately."* 

* Kuggeri, The First Outlines of a Systematic Anthropology of 
Asia, p. 63< 



VOL. HI.] &AC1AL AFtlffttftES 37 

Eickstedt. 

Barou von Eickstedt lias thrown new light 
on the ethnical composition of India. According to 
him, the most primitive racial stratum are the 
Weddids. They probably number over 20,000,000, 
and only a century ago, formed one-third of the 
whole population of India. The Gondids and the 
Malids are the most important sub-types. The 
Gondid race is chiefly characterised in the widely 
spread Gond tribes of Central India. The Malids 
form the southern sub-type of the Weddids. The 
type is here more primitive than among the Gondids. 
In the case of many individuals, the face is extremely 
low and lozenge-shaped. This shape is the conse- 
quence of very wide jaw bones and pointed chin. The 
chin is moreover small, and its profile, particularly 
in the case of women, extremely retreating. The 
nose is very broad and low, the steep forehead 
often overhangs the eyes. The lips are fairly thick, 
at any rate thicker than is the case with the Gondids. 
Quite often the face is lightly prognathous. They 
are extremely dark-skinned, indeed almost black- 
brown. Dr. Eickstedt 's view is that it is not correct 
without more ado to associate the Malids with the 
Negrito (as has been done by Lapicque and Keane). 
Negritos are indeed of small stature, even very 
much smaller than the Malids, and they have dark 
skins and curly hair, but they by no means reveal 
the primitiveness of the Malids. It would be more 
cautious and more likely correct to assume the 
existence of a Proto-Negrito element and its fusion 



38 THE ABORIGINES OF TBAVANCOBE [VoL. HI. 



into the ancient Indian Weddid aborigines. Eick- 
stedt thinks that "this standpoint does not differ 
very materially from that of Keane, but signifies 
a deepening arid differentiation of our view, as 
must be expected with our advance of knowledge.' 1 * 
According to him, "the Malids are only found in 
the forest areas of India. They form a thick band 
running northwards from the southernmost Carda- 
mom Hills to the Nilgiris, splitting up here and 
continuing on the one hand as far as some uncer- 
tain northern limit in the West Mysore forests 
and over the Nallamalais as far as Krishna. Kani- 
kkar, Malabedar, and Kurumbar are characterestio 
groups in the west, and Irular, Yanadi, Chenchu, 
ete,, in the east/'f 

The Negrito element in Travancore 

The presence of a Negrito strain in the abori- 
ginal population of South India was suspected by 
early observers, but definite evidence was lacking. 
Its existence among the Kadars of the Cochin State 
was several times advanced by Preuss, Keane, 
Sergi, and Haddon. The resarches of Lapicque 
among the Kadars convinced him that the existence 
of *une race nigre primitive' was incontestable. 

Dr. Button has drawn attention to the pre- 
sence of the Negrito type among 1 the Angami 
Nagas and says, "In the Kadars and the Uralis of 

* Ananthakrishna Iyer, L. K., The Mysore Tribes and Castes' 
Vol. I, Eickstedt. Tho Position of Mysore in India's . Racial 
History, pp. 20-25. 

t Do- Do. p. 26. 



VOL. Ill-] BACIAL AFFINITIES 39 



extreme south, occasional individuals with frizzly 
hair and low stature and negro-like features are 
very suggestive of survivals of the Negrito race."* 
To Dr. Hutton, the Uralis seem to suggest the 
Negrito as much as the Kadar does. The height 
of the men is about 5 feet, the hair is very curly, 
but is also harsh and in some individuals crisp 
and kinky. The features suggest that the basic 
type is Proto-Australoid with some admixture of 
Negrito and Mediterranean. The Kanikkar is also 
described by him as Proto-Australoid with also 
some Negrito admixture and being by no means 
pronouncedly prognathous.f Spirally curved hair 
has been observed by me among the Uralis, 
the Kanikkar, the Malapantarams, the Malabetans 
and the Vishavans. 

Dr. Guha observed the existence of frizzly hair 
among the Kadars of the Cochin State. According 
to him, the comparatively low values of the Co- 
efficient of Racial Likeness found between the 
Kadar and the Nattu Malayan, and the Yerava, 
and their divergencies from the Bhil-Chenchu type, 
coupled with the distinct negroid features in many 
of the individuals belonging to these tribes seem also 
due to the Negrito strain among the latter, though it 
may appear to be submerged at the present moment. 
It has therefore to be inferred that the remnants 
of the Negrito ra/ce now found among the Semangs 
and Andamanese were much more widely spread 
at one time and extended well into the Indian 

* Hutton, The Census of India, 1981, 1: foMia, 'Part I, p. 442. 
t Hutton, -,The Census of India, 1931, 1: India, Part III B, 
Ethnographical, p. 11. 



40 THE ABORIGINES OF TBAVANCOBE [VOL. HL 



continent to the south-westernmost end in Cochin 
and Travancore, , , t ( ,. ; , , ^.. 

De Quatrefages laid down that the Negritos 
were braehy cephalic. Dr. Guha observes, " though 
the mean cephalic index of the Kadars was doli- 
chocephalic, among the individuals with frizzly hair, 
there was a marked tendency for a rise in the index 
towards mesorhiny as shown by two individuals 
having 77 '34 and 79 -29 as the values of their index, 
which indicated that the basis of the Negrito type 
was probably brachycephalic or at least meso as in 
the Semangs, but large admixture with the pri- 
mitive dolichocephalic race has affected the general 
shape of their head". Dr. Guha also thinks that 
the long spirals now seen among most of the Kadars 
and Pulayas with frizzly hair was probably due to 
the same admixture. He observed short spirals in 
two individuals. At the present day, the Negritos 
are found to be closely similar to the Melanesian 
type in hair and head-form, but judging from the 
presence of two men with short spirals and high ce- 
phalic index, Dr. Guha is of opinion that the original 
type was not probably unlike that of the Semangs 
and Andamanese, among whom designs of bamboo 
combs identical with those used by the Kadar women 
are found.* A comparative statement of the 
measurements of the Semang, Kadar, and Mala- 
pantarams is given below in Table IV. 



* Hutton, The Census of India, 1931, I, India Part III, A, 
Ethnographical, p. 1. 



. m.] 



RACIAL AFFINITIES 



41 



TABLE IV. 



No. 


Name of 
Tribs. 


Sta- 
ture. 


Cephalic 
Index. 


Nasal 
Index. 


Hair. 


Colour. 


1 

2 
3 


Seipang (Griffith 
Taylor) . 

Kadar (Thurston). 
Malapantarara 


1507 
1556 
1547 


77'7 
79*9 
76-0 


97*1 
89'8 
78-0 


Pepper 
crirri. 
1 Short 
spirals. 
Spirall} 
' curved. 


Choco. 
late. 
Do. 
brown. 
Dark. 



In Travancore arc found the Malapantarams, 
a jungle tribe in the hunting stage of civilization. 
In 1935, 1 measured 76 individuals of whom 22 were 
dolichocephalic, 50 mesocephalic, and 4 brachycepha- 
lie. Their forehead is receding, and the brow-rid- 
ges are prominent. The hair is black and looks 
curly in some. Their average cephalic index is 
75 -95. The value of the cephalic index of the Mala- 
pantarams is that it goes to confirm the theory 
that the basis of the Negrito type was probably 
brachycephalic or at least meso as in the Semangs, 
but that large admixture with the primitive dolicho- 
cephalic race has affected the general shape of the 
head. The Malapantarams are surrounded by 
'doleph' tribes like the Urali, Malayarayans, and 
the Ullatans. 

The presence of a Negrito strain in the abori- 
ginal population of Southern India thus receives 
additional testimony from its existence among some 
of the primitive tribes of Travancore, where it has 
been observed by Dr. Hutton and myself. The 
photographs will bear ample evidence to it. 

o 



42 THE ABORIGINES OJT TBAVAffCOBE [Voii. EEL 

The Negrito appears to kave been the first 
inhabitant of South-eastern Asia. Traces of, his 
stock are still to be seen in some of the forest 
tribes of the higher hills of the extreme south of 
India, and similar traces appeaf to exist in the 
inaccessible areas between Assam fend Burma, where 
a dwarfish stature is combined with frizzly hair 
such as appears to result from the recent admixtures 
of the pure or virtually pure Negrito stock of the 
Andamans with blood from the mainland of India 
or Burma. Dr. Hutton observes that it is just 
possible that the bow is still his invention, judging 
from its existence among the Andamanese. In 
Travancore, the bow is still used by the Uralis, the 
Muthuvans, the Vishavans, and the Kanikkar. 

Proto-Australoid 

The Negritos must have been early displaced 
or supplanted by the Proto-Australoid who formed 
one of the major elements in the aboriginal popu- 
lation of India. This dolichocephalic type appears 
to Dr. Hutton to have had its origin in the West. 
Sewcll reverts to the theory of Australian origins, 
and, in his account of Mohenjo Daro skulls, he 
definitly associates the Proto-Australoid type with 
the Australian aborigines on the one hand and 
with the Eodesian skull in the other. According 
to Dr. Hutton, the safest hypothesis seems to be 
that the Proto-Australoid type in India is derived 
from an early migration from the West, and its 
special features have been finally determined and 
permanently characterised in India itself. It is 



VOL. lit] 



RACIAL AFFINITIES 



43 



represented in the purest form in the Veddahs, 
Malavetans, Irulas, Sholagas, and similar tribes 
in the hunting stage of Ceylon and Southern India, 
and perhaps in as pure a form as any in the nearly 
related Paliyans of the Palni Hills, whose sole 
weapon is the digging spud. "If we compare the 
tribes of Travaneore with the Veddahs and the 
aborigines of Australia, we observe that in the 
shape of the head and the face, form of hair, and 
skin colour, the three are essentially alike, though 
the Australians are taller and show larger abso- 
lute dimensions of head than the other two. It 
may be observed that the Veddahs are closer to 
the Australians than to the tribes of Travaneore 
and outside, which are the smallest of the three. 
The shortest and smallest are the Indian tribes, 
then come the Veddahs, and lastly the Australians. 
We may assume that all the three belong to the 
same stock, the Indian tribes retaining the more 
basic characters. A comparative statement of 
measurements is given in Table V. It is this type 
that is primarily responsible for the platyrhine 
and dark-skinned elements in India. 

TABLE V. 





Name of 




Cephalic 


Nasal 






No. 


the Tribe. 


Stature. 


Index. 


Index. 


Hair. 


Colour. 


1 


Australian 


162-5 


73-0 


Platy- 


wary 


Chocolate. 










rhino. 






2 


Veddah . 


157-1 


75-1 


84 '0 


wavy 


Do. 


3 


Malavgtan. 


153-3 


73-5 


92*5 


curly 


Dark. 


4 


Muthuvan. 


154*2 


73-8 


88-4 


wavy 


Darkbrown 


5 


Kanikkftr . 


152-9 


74-2 


89 ' 


spirally 


Dark. 












curved 





44 



THE ABOBIGINES OF TBAVANCOBB |ToL. Ht. 



Blood-grouping 

The evidence of blood-grouping tests made 
under the auspices of the Travancore University 
goes to confirm the view that the Kanikkar are of 
the same stock as the Australians. 211 Kanikkar 
were blood-grouped in 1939 by Dr. C. (X Karuna- 
karan and they yielded the following result. 



o 


A 


B 


AB 


10851 -2 % 


3918-4% 


6329-8% 


10-5 % 



A comparison of the results obtained in other parts 
of India and Australia is made below: 



No. 


Name of 
the Tribo. 


No. 
Blood- 
grouped. 


O 


A 


B 


' AB 


1 


K&nikkar . 


211 


51-2 % 


18-4 % 


29.8 % 


5% 


2 


Kadar 
(Macfarlanc) 


50 


48 % 


30 % 


9 % 


12 % 


3 


Pan! y an 
(Ayyappau) 


250 


20 % 


60 % 


7-60% 


10- % 


4 


iiiil Male 
(Sarkar) 


139 


46-76% 


15-83% 


31-65% 


5-76% 


5 


Australian . 
(Phillips) 


815 


56 % 


37'7 % 


5-3 % 


1 % 



Barring the Paniyan of Wynad, the Kanikkar, the 
Kadar, and the Hill Male of Bihar exhibit a larger 
percentage of and very nearly approximate 
figures for the Australian. 



VOL. IIL] 



KACIAL AFFINITIES 



The position of the Kanikkar with reference 
to tribes in different parts of the world is given 
below : 



No. 


Name of 
the Tribe. 


No. 
Blood- 
grouped. 


O 


A 


B 

V 


AB 


1 


Bushmen 


615 


56-1% 


29'6% 


7'5% 


6-5% 


2 


Australian . 


815 


56 % 


37-7% 


5*3% 


1 % 


3 


Maori 


73 


63 % 


35'6% 


1-4% 


... 


4 


Kanikkar . 


211 


51'2% 


18'4% 


29-8% 


5% 




i 













Recent work in testing the blood-groups of the 
Australian aborigines, the Maori, and the Bushmen 
shows that these and other primitive peoples are 
high in A, but less in B, confirming the view that the 
A blood-group originated earlier than the B.* The 
Kanikkar however indicate more of B than A, 
which is probably to be accounted for by the 
process of miscegenation with the high caste Hindu. 

Ruggles Gates thinks it probable that mankind 
was originally all blood-group and that A and B 
have originated subsequently as mutations or ger- 
minal changes which are inherited. The statis- 
tics of blood-grouping make it probable that the 
B mutation has never appeared in such peoples 
as the Australian aborigines, the Bushmen of 
Africa, and the Basques of Europe which have a 
high percentage of A, while their low percentage 
of B has probably come in through crossing. 

* Gates, R. liugglea Blood groups aud Physiognomy of British 
Columbia Coastal Indiana, J. JR. A. I, 1934, p. 41. 



THE ABOBIGIKES OF ^BAVAffCOfcE (T0L. IIL 



Recent researches in the racial distribution 
of blood-groups have shown that the predominance 
of group B in India is in strong contrast to Western 
Europe, where group B is markedly absent. The 
highest percentage seems to congregate on the 
mainland of Asia and the adjoining islands of 
Indonesia. The percentages in India vary from 
37-2 to 41-2, a marked contrast to that recorded 
in England. Latte's opinion is that it is definitely 
established that the distribution of blood-groups 
in a given population is related to its ethno- 
anthropological constitution.* Group A decreases 
going east and south from Western Europe and 
B increases inversely, while is characteristic of 
long isolated and marginal communities such as 
the Australian, Esquimo, Maoris and others. 
Serologfcal tests in Travancore support the findings 
of the physical anthropologist in regard to the 
affinity of the hill-tribes (Kanikkar) with the 
Australians. 

The contribution of the Proto-Australoid to 
Indian culture may be the introduction of pottery. 
The presence of the boomerang as well as of the 
blow-gun in South India may possibly be credited 
to them, and in the domain of religion probably 
totemism."t In North Travancore, the blow-gun is 
found among the Muthuvans and the Vishavans, 
as large reeds grow in the locality. 

* Hiriton, Census of India, 1931, Vol. I, India, part I, p. 451- 
T Hutton, The Census of India, 1931, 1: India, Part I, p. 444. 



III.} RACIAL AFFINITIES 47 



Conclusion 

Tfee existence of a Negrito strain in the abori- 
ginal population of South India has received addi- 
tional evidence in Travancore. It 'has been 
observed by Lapicque and Dr. Guha among the 
Kadars and the Pulayans of the Cocliin State, and 
by Dr. Hutton and myself among the Uralis and 
the Kanikkar. Spirally curved hair has been 
observed by me among the Crralis, the Kanikkar, 
the Malavetans, the Malapantarams, and the 
Vishavans. These were followed by the Proto- 
Australoid (Pre-Dravidian). This type is found 
among the aboriginal tribes of Central and Southern 
India, and is closely allied to the Veddahs of 
Ceylon, the Toalas of Celebes, and the Sakais of the 
Malay Peninsula. The Malavetans, the Muthuvans, 
the Kanikkar, and others may be regarded as re- 
presentatives of this group. 

At present there are no distinctly Negrito com- 
munities in India, nor has any trace of a Negrito 
language been discovered. But distinctly Negrito 
features not only crop up continually from the 
Himalayan slopes to Cape Comorin, but also abound 
in great megalithic monuments which help us to 
some extent to unravel the history of their remote 
past. The observations of Dr. Hutton, Dr. Guha, 
and myself go to show that Negrito features crop 
up among tWe Kadars and the Pulayans, of the 
Cochin State, and the Uralis, the Malapantarams, 
the Kanikkar and the Vishavans of Travancore. 



48 THE ABOBIGINES OF TBAVANCOBE [VoiJ. HL 

It is interesting to point out that megalithic 
monuments are largely found on the High Banges 
of Travancore. Dolmens, menhirs, and alignments 
are found in the region of the Uralis, the Mannans, 
the Malayarayans, and other jungle tribes of 
Travancore. Mr. Perry points out that, all the 
world over, megalithic monuments exhibit such simi- 
larities of structure that they must have been the 
work of a people showing a common culture. It 
is also worthy of notice that the reality of a stone- 
using people is evidenced by the use of stones for 
graves by some of the hill-tribes even now. The 
dead are buried and a stone is planted at the head 
and the foot of the grave by the Uralis, thte 
Muthuvans, the Manngns, and the Malayarayans. 

Systematic excavations still await the spade of 
the archaeologist in Travancore. Ward and Conner 
made the earliest of excavations in the State. 
According to them, all the tumuli appear to be of 
a period earlier than the Iron Age.* Mr. Bour- 
dillon once picked up a bronze lamp from one of 
the tumuli. No skeletal remains have been so far 
unearthed to bear any direct evidence of the 
Negrito race in Travancore. Judged by the nature 
and contents of the objects found, the megalithic 
remains of the Deccan and South India are said 
to reveal a uniform culture, and it is considered 
that the megalithic remains of Southern India 
are Post-Vedic and later than any similar remains 
of the Central Indian plateau, from whence the 

* Ward and Conner Memoirs of the Survey of Travancore and 



VOL. IIL] KACIAL AFFINITIES 49 



culture would seem to have spread southwards. 
The excavations of Mohenjo Daro and Harappa 
reveal that one of the skulls is Proto-Australoid. 
A correspondence in type is revealed by one of 
the South Indian skulls, Adichanallur, which is 
classed as Proto-Australoid by Elliot Smith. The 
physical characteristics observed in the skulls are 
found among the existing South Indian tribes and 
among the Veddahs of Ceylon. While "Pre-Dra- 
vidian" is their time-hDiioured appellation, Dr. 
Eickstedt would call them "Weddid" and Dr. Guha, 
' ' Nishadic ' '. Dr. Button has labelled them < ' Proto- 
Australoid " after Sewell. It is fitting that this 
designation should continue. 



* Button, The Census of India, 931, I -Part I, A. p 68. 

H 



CHAPTER IV. 

MEGALITHIC MONUMENTS 
Introduction 

The distribution of megalithic monuments fol- 
lows the zones of the primitive tribes in India. 
They are found in Assam, Chota Nagpur, South 
India, and the North- West Frontier regions. They 
exist over the whole country drained by the Goda- 
vari, more commonly in the valleys of the Krishna, 
and on both sides of the ghats through Coimbatore 
as far as Cape Comorin. In Travancore the 
Anjanad valley and the Cardamom Hills abound 
in megalithic monuments. The dolmens are found 
on both banks of the Pambaiiar in the Anjanad 
valley, and command a wide view of the surround- 
ing country so as to be eminently suitable for 
defence. On the highlands they are larger in size 
than in the lowlands, where they exhibit a pro- 
gressive deterioration in size. The great concen- 
tration of dolmens is in Bellary, where there are 
as many as 2,127 dolmens. We observe such 
concentration of dolmens also in the Anjanad valley 
in Travancore. 

Purpose of Megalithic Monuments 

Respect for the dead appears to have been a 
prominent characteristic of man in the Palaeoli- 
thic and Neolithic periods. It implied a belief in 
after-life. The most interesting aspect of Neoli- 
thic life lay in the rituals of the dead which 
consisted in the raising of works of rough stone 




I 

I 



ctf 
G 

1 

M 

o 

5 



VOL. III.] MEGALITHIC MONUMENTS 51 



over the dead who were buried in urns. The idea 
was that the spirit of the dead should be given 
a location as in life and that the chamber of the 
dead should be the prototype of the home. They 
apprehended that "unless the departed spirit had 
a home and other things as in life, it* would hover 
restless and troublesome around its old abode 
doing thereby harm to the living. "* To accommo- 
date the spirit they constructed various megali- 
thic monuments which were rude structures built 
of large pieces of stone. They consisted of single 
upright stones fixed in the ground, or of rows of 
such stones, or of large flat stones supported on a 
number of large uprights. Megaliths belong to 
the Neolithic period and also to a part of the 
Copper and Bronze Ages. "Until recently, megali- 
thic remains were thought of as the burial places 
of mighty chiefs or temples used by the Druids, "f 

Dolmen 

The dolmens are rude structures consisting of 
large unhewn stone resting on two or more others 
placed erect. They are found scattered on the 
long chain of wooded hills in Travancore. They 
are generally considered to be "stones of the 
monkeys ' of India, ' ' but most of the primitive 
people of Travancore have no knowledge of them 
nor do they evince any interest in them. The 
people of Anjanad call them Valividus or abodes of 
monkeys. Of their antiquity, Professors Macdonell 

* Rengachari, Vo The Prehistoric India, p. 111. 

t James, E 0- An In trod action to Anthropology, p. 148- 



52 THE ABORIGINES OF TRAVABTCORE [VoL. III. 



and Keith point out references in the Big- Veda, 
while the late Mr. Gopinatha Rao refers to 
passages in Tolkapium and Purananuru. The 
Uralis call them Pandukuzhies, pits made by the 
Pandus'or Pandavas, to whom ancient mysterious 
monuments all over India are generally ascribed. 
They are looked upon by the credulous as sacred 
and dangerous. It is said that peasants in France 
will not take shelter under them or go near them 
at night, but the Vellalas and the Malapulayas of 
Anjanad have no such fear. They sit under them, 
when they graze their cattle. Dr. Borlase thinks 
that dolmens were connected with the activities 
of a shady priesthood. Dubriel has tried to con- 
nect many of the Deccan megaliths with sacrificial 
houses in later Vedic literature. It is averred by 
Walhouse that the people who built them were 
a race of dwarfs about a span or cubit high, but the 
results of excavation unfold a different tale. The 
bones found are neither of dwarfs nor of giants, 
but of men of ordinary stature and the stone slabs 
used for monuments indicate that they were 1 cut 
from solid rock and carried some distance, and 
the people were physically equal to the present 
race of men . 

The earliest record of dolmens in Travancore 
was by Ward and Conner in 1852. They state 
that "the pandukulies or barrows, those remains 
of primaeval customs so common throughout the 
Peninsula, are also found here, though they are 
not so numerous." The Uralis believe that dol- 
mens are places where treasure is hidden. But 




A Dolmen in Anjanad showing coursed masonry 
on the cover slab, 




A View of typical Dolmens in Anjanad, 



VOL. III.] MEGALITHIO MONUMENTS 53 



no such treasure has been found in any of the 
dolmens examined. Dolmens are burial chambers 
in which people of late Neolithic times buried 
their people of importance. In Travancore they 
are invariably found on the crests of hills in the 
Rani Reserve, and they are built of unhewn blocks 
of stone. In the erection of dolmens, certain 
architectural methods and principles are observed. 
By the use of the orthostatic rock, the maximum 
of wall area was provided with the minimum of 
thickness. With the upright wall technique went 
hand in hand the roofing of narrow spaces by 
means of horizontal slabs laid across on the top 
of the uprights. The second feature of megalithic 
architecture was the use of more or less coursed 
masonry set without mortar, each block lying on 
its side, and not its edge. A series of uprights is 
first put in position, and over these are laid several 
courses of rather smaller stones.* A variant of 
the latter is found in the Anjanad valley. 

Types of Dolmens 

According to Colonel Meadows Taylor, the 
dolmens are of two kinds, those consisting of four 
stones, three supporting stones and one capstone, 
leaving one side open, and those in which the 
chamber is closed by a fourth stone; in the latter 
case, the fourth stone has invariably a circular 
opening in it. Both these types of dolmens are 
found in Travancore. The dolmen at Kadukuthi 
in the Rani Reserve is rectangular and the portion 

* Fergusson,iRough Stone Monuments, p. 465. 



54 THE ABORIGINES OF TEAVANCOEE [VoL. III. 



above ground is 8 feet by 2*4 feet in dimensions. 
It has only one gallery. Lengthwise, it has one 
single upright on one side, and two others on the 
opposite side. Sideways, there is one on each 
side. The floor is paved with a single side slab. 
The capstone is 7 feet by 7% feet and is rudely 
triangular. The dolmen is situated on the crest 
of a hill. It appears to have been a dolmen of the 
earliest times as it is built of unhewn blocks of 
stone. The presence of stones lying scattered 
round the dolmen shows that it might have been 
covered over with them. Excavation yielded me 
no result. 

Rev. Mateer found another type of dolmens 
on the hills inhabited by the Malayarayans of 
Travancore. They stand north to south with a 
circular opening facing the south. A rude stone 
is fitted to this aperture with another acting as a 
lever to prevent its falling out. The stones like 
stones at the top and bottom are single slab. "To 
tins day, the Arayans make similar little cells of 
stone, the whole forming a box, a few inches 
square."* 

Dolmens are also found at Perunthalpara on 
both banks of the Thalayar or Pambanar river, a 
small tributary of the Amaravathi which flows into 
the Cauvery. Here on a flat level rocky table-land 
are seen a large number of dolmens in groups of 
three, four, or five. Around each group is a cir- 
cular packing of roughly hewn stones or boulders. 

* Bov. Mateor, Native Life in Travancore. 




G 
C 

J 
O 

O 
< 



VOL. III.] MEGALITHIC MONUMENTS 55 



These groups of dolmens are found distributed in 
a circle. The disposition of the majority of the 
dolmens is east to west. A few are also in the 
north to south direction. The upright stones are 
rectangular in shape, and are about 10 feet long, 
5 feet broad, and 7 feet high. The cover-slab is 
17 feet by 7-8 inches. The floor is? paved with 
a flat stone-slab 9 feet by 4 feet 6 inches. The 
inner chamber is 9 feet by 4 feet. Over some of 
the cover-slabs are found remnants of rubble stone 
packing. There is a semicircular entrance to the 
dolmen on one side. Most of these dolmens have 
four uprights, but one dolmen in some group has 
only three uprights and one cap-stone, thus leaving 
one side open. Monuments of this kind are also 
found in the Bison valley in the Cardamom Hills. 
At Vadattupara in the Malayatur Reserve there 
is a dolmen consisting of four uprights, but it is 
smaller and cruder in shape than those found in 
the Anjanad valley. 

Another type of dolmen is found on the Car- 
damom Hills near Mattupatti. Here the chamber 
is formed as described above, but is buried in the 
earth showing only the capstone above the ground. 
Dolmens of this type are found on the Nilgiris and 
throughout Malabar. About 15 yards to the west 
of the dolmen was found an alignment of monoliths 
or menhirs planted in the earth at almost equal 
distances, some small, and some very big and 
impressive. 

At Thondimalai on the Cardamom Hills, the 
dolmens indicate that a large population must have 



56 THE ABOBIOINBS OF TEAVANCOBE [VoL. HE. 



inhabited that region in the early Iron Age. 
" These megalithic tombs are found generally on 
prominent hill-tops or ridges, and are placed in 
groups. In all, six of these graves were excavated. 
They were situated in a straight row, the graves 
being placed close to one another. After remov- 
ing the broken stones that marked the spot 
about one and a half feet below the surface of the 
ground was found a flat circular stone that gave 
a hollow sound to a light tapping with crowbar or 
pickaxe. Underneath the covering stone was found 
a large urn, the mouth of which was about 15 inches 
in diameter and the vertical height about three 
and a half feet, placed in a vertical position in the 

ground and firmly imbedded in clay and gravel 

Inside each of these large urns were found six or 
eight small urns, eating and drinking vessels, vases, 
chatties of various shapes and sizes, some of red 
clay, others black polished inside and outside, of 
very thin material and very brittle to handle. 
They were firmly imbedded in fine red clay that 
seemed to have silted in and partly filled up the 
large urn, and the small vessels were filled with 
the same clay very tightly packed, and were wedged 
in upon one another in such positions as to make it 
very difficult to remove them unbroken. Bones were 
found imbedded with the vessels in one urn, and 
bones crumbled and mixed with clay in others. 
The Doctor was able to identify one of the bones 
as the hip bone of a man. On the top of one urn 
was found the blade of a sword, almost completely 
rusted through about 2y% feet long with no sign 




A Thantapulaya Female Group in their 
primitive costume. 



VOL. III.] MEGAL.ITHIC MONUMENTS 57 

of a handle. It may have had originally a wooden 
or bone handle that had become completely decayed. 
Inside the urn were found two iron spear-heads 
and what appears to be an iron chisel. On the 
top of the covering stone of another urn was 
found a piece of a sword, the rest having com- 
pletely rusted away .. . 

The urn itself and the vessels found inside con- 
form to the various types of what is called "Iron 
Age Pottery" in the catalogue of Prehistoric 
Antiquities in the Government Museum, Madras; 
some of which were taken from Tandigudi in the 
Palni Hills and other parts of the Madura Dis- 
trict, but most of which are from the Nilgiris, the 
Coimbatore, Malabar and Tinnevelly districts.* 

The dolmens are still erected by certain tribes 
of India and Burma, the Khasi, the Munda, the 
Gond, the Oraon, the Bhil of Central India, the 
Kurumba of the Nilgiris, and the Malayarayan of 
Travancore. In 110 ease are the dolmens of the 
size characteristic of the prehistoric phase of 
civilization. The earliest known examples are the 
largest. The dolmens in the Anjanad valley and 
the Cardamom Hills bear out this point. Those 
found on lower elevation in the Rani and Malaya- 
tur Reserves are smaller in size. The loss of cul- 
ture in the case of the tribes who built megaliths 
is observed from the fact that the present day 
tribes do not usually display any tendency to 
construct dolmens. 



* Saundera, A. J., Demons in tho Palni Hills, South India. 
(Tho Madras Mail Annual, I928/) 



58 THE ABORIGINES OF TRAVANCOBE [VOL. III- 



Dr. Rivers has brought out this feature very 
prominently among the Todas of the Nilgiris, 
where dolmens are largely found. They furnish 
us with an example of a tribe at a low level of 
material culture living in a district filled with 
remains of a fairly high civilization. Sarat Chan- 
dra Roy has observed the same fact in Chota 
Nagpur and Cooper in Assam. In Travancore, 
the Mnthuvans and the Vellalas, who inhabit the 
dolmen area in Anjanad, evince no interest in them. 
In the case of the Malayarayans who erect minia- 
ture dolmens, a loss of culture can be detected in 
that they do not manipulate large stones as their 
predecessors did. Travancore furnishes an in- 
stance of the Anjanad valley to illustrate the loss 
of the material side of culture and shows that 
regions now inhabited by them were once the 
scenes of thriving civilization. 

Menhir 

Menhirs are found in parts of North Travan- 
core. They are very few in number. Bruce Foote 
found some menhirs of moderate size in the 
Madura district, though without any markings. 
We are lost in the mists of antiquity in search for 
the primitive purpose of these monuments. They 
may be memorial stones. There is a miniature 
menhir, three feet high at Marayur, called Vatham- 
kolli. 

Perry observes that the reality of a stone- 
using people is evidenced by the use of stones for 
graves by the hill-tribes. In Watubela, the dead 




A Malavetan chipping the incisor teeth. 




A Malavetan woman showing the chipped teeth. 



VOL. III.] MEGALITHIO MONUMENTS 59 



arc buried and a stone is planted at the head and 
foot -of the grave. The practice is prevalent among 
the Kabui Nagas of Assam and also among the 
Muthuvans, the Uralis, the Mannans, and the 
Malayarayans oi ? Travancore. The Uralis plant a 
stone not only at the head and foot ^of the grave, 
but also on both sides of it. The survival of this 
custom among the primitive peoples of Assam and 
Travancore lends support to the theory that there 
might have been a movement of stone-using people, 
not only throughout Indonesia as far as Assam, 
but also tli rough Assam to Cape Comorin. 

Age of Megalithic Monuments 

Systematic excavation has still to be made by 
the archaeologist in Travancore. Ward and Conner 
did the earliest of excavations in Travancore. 
Antiquarians, after careful researches, have been 
able to divide megalith ic monuments into three 
classes according to their contents. 

1. The Tumuli of the Stone Age are considered 
to be the most ancient. They are often of great 
size and are distinguished by circles of stones and 
stone chambers in which are found the remains 
of uiiburnt bodies with objects of stone and amber. 
The dolmen opened by Ward and Conner at Chokka- 
nad contained no implement, and probably belonged 
to the Stone Age. This represents the lowest 
state of civilization before the introduction of 
metals. 

2. The Tumuli of the Bronze Age contain relics 
of burnt bodies, vessels, and implements and orna- 



60 THE ABOKIGINES OF TBAVANCOBE [Voii. III. 



ments of advanced civilization. Tumuli of this 
kind arc rare in Kerala, but it appears that Mr. 
Bourdillon once picked up a bronze lamp which 
probably belonged to one such tumulus. 

3. The Tumuli of the Iron Age are the most 
recent and represent a comparatively advanced 
state of civilization. Iron implements, swords, 
spear-heads, and highly polished vessels are found 
in thorn. In the Cochin State, all the tumuli that 
have been found appear to be of the Iron Age, 
while in Travancore there are some that are of 
even an earlier period as was revealed by the excava- 
tions of Ward and Cornier. 

Sifjni Ifl.cance of Dolmens 

Major Mimn claims that the dolmen-builders 
of the Dcccan were milling for gold, copper, iron 
and diamonds. He points out that the two dis- 
tricts where the dolmens are thickest are Bellary 
and Dharwar, which are riddled with old workings 
of gold, copper, and iron. The Anjaiiad valley 
is the home of a large concentration of dolmens. 
The spade of the archaeologist and the geologist 
can alone determine what the mineral contents of 
the soil are in Anjanad. The late Mr. Vincent 
Ball says that gold-washing, as practised in India, 
is an example of human degradation. The Gond# 
of Central India are assiduous gold workers. The> 
still erect miniature dolmens and thus show strong 
signs of continuity with people of the archaic 
civilization. The Kurumbas of the Nilgiris are the 



VOL. III.] MEGALITHIC MONUMENTS 61 



chief gold-washers of the Madras Presidency, dat- 
ing" from 500 B. C. The Malayarayans of Travan- 
core, according to Walhouse, make imitation Kista- 
ven of small slabs of stone in the Rani Reserve 
forests, but gold washing is not in evidence. It 
may have become a forgotten art. The matter 
requi res further investigation. 

Megalithic monuments in different parts of 
the world present such a uniformity of structure 
that it is hardly compatible with the theory of 
their independent origin. Montelius focusses at- 
tention on the continuous influence of the East 
on the West from remote pre-historic times. 
Fergussoii thinks that the dolmen builders were 
Dravidian in origin. Ruggeri strikes a different 
note and opines that they are Veddaic or Australoid 
in origin, and between the Mundas of the north 
and the Veddahs of the south there intervene the 
Kurumbas, Irulas, the Muthuvans, and the Uralis, 
representing the Pre-Dravidians ( Proto-Austra- 
loids) who once extended over the whole of India 
and later came under the influence of the Dravi- 
dians and the Aryans. According to Flinders 
Petrie, the date of the Pre-Dravidian culture is 
about 2500 B. C. This view is confirmed by Perry 
who holds that, ' ' all the world over, the dolmens 
present such similarities of structure that they 
nust have been the work of a people, showing a 
Common culture."* Beyond Indonesia which in- 
cludes among other areas Assam and Burma, 
megalithic monuments are in evidence in the region 

* G. T. Perry, Megalithic Culture of IndoneHia. 



62 THE ABORIGINES OF TRAVANCOBE [VOL. III. 



of the Mundas of Chota Nagpur, the Todas of 
Nilgris, and the hill-tribes of Travancore. 

Conclusion 

Palacontolo^ical evidence also supports the 
theory of the common origin of megalithic monu- 
ments. No skeletal remains have been so far uii- 
earthed to bear any direct evidence of the 
Negrito race in Travancore. "Judged by the 
nature and contents of objects found, the megalithic 
remains of the Deccan and South India are said 
to reveal a uniform culture, and it is considered 
that the megalithic remains of Southern India 
are post Vedie and later than any similar remains 
of the Central Indian Plateau, from where the 
culture would seem to have spread southwards."* 
Two fossil remains have fecii found in India, the 
Bayana Cranium and the Sailkot Cranium. Dr. 
Keith is of opinion that they are of Veddaic type 
which represents the Pre-Dravidian (Proto-Austra- 
loid) people. "The excavations of Mohciijo Daro 
and Ilarappa reveal that one of the skulls is Proto- 
-Australoid. A. correspondence in type is revealed 
by one of the South Indian skulls at Adichanallur 
which is called Proto-Australoid by Elliot Smith, 'f 
The physical clianicterestics observed in the skull* 
are found among the existing South Indian Tribe? 
and among the Veddahs of Ceylon. "There is 
a remarkable similarity between these and the 
skeletons found in the tumuli of Great Britain, 

* Mutton, Census of India, 1931, Vol. I, Part 3, Ethnographical 
LXV to LXVII. 

t Do. Do LX1X 



VOL. III.] MEOALITHIC MONUMENTS 63 



France, and Germany, which exhibit features of a 
dolichocephalic people*. Tlius the uniformity IP. 
the structure of the monuments is marked by a 
uniformity in the structure of the contained skele- 
tons which belong to a dolichocephalic people."* 

While Pre-Dravidiaii is their time-hqnoured 
appellation, Dr. Kickstcdt would call them Weddid 
and Dr. Guha, Nishadic. Dr. Hutton has labelled 
them Proto-Australoid after Sewell. Though the 
Pre-Dravidian has for long stood the test of time, 
it is but fitting that the term Proto-Australoid 
should continue. 



Newbingcn, Modern Geography, pp. 203 to 204- 



CHAPTER V 

DOMESTIC LIFE 
Clothing and Decoration 

Primitive man was in a state of nudity, but in 
the course of progressive evolution, he became 
subject to a sense of shame which was not naturally 
in him. This sense of shame which is a by-product 
of modern civilization became more and more a 
simple manifestation of the male. Clothing seems 
to have originated in the decorative impulse. The 
first and most primitive form of clothing was to 
cover exposure. As typical of the level which has 
been referred to as the fig-leaf state of society, there 
are several tribes in Travancore who have only 
recently advanced beyond that state. The Mala- 
pantarams are a tribe in the hunting stage of 
civilization. "The barks of trees are their clothing, 
and rocks, caves, and hollows of trees, their 
homes."* Mrs. Evans observed the Malavetans 
"wearing dresses of leaves. "f The Kanikkar call 
them ' Tolvetans ', which is reminiscent of the leafy 
garment they wore in former times. Jacob Canter 
Visscher has recorded that "the Ullatans wore no 
clothing and regarded the tiger as their uncle, "t 
The Kanikkar were as nature made them rude 
with only a semblance of cloth. Rev. Mateer says 
that "men almost go naked, having only a few 

* V. Nagamiah , The Trarancore State Manual, Vol. II, p. 417. 
f Madras Museum Bulletin, Vol. Ill, No. 1, 1900, Mrs. J. W 

Evans, The Malavedars of Travancoro , p. 86- 
t Jacob Canter Visacher, Letters frora Malabar, p. 129. 




Paliyan woman preparing Vagi. 



VOL, III.] DOMESTIC I.TFE .65 

inches of cloth round their loins and a small cloth 
on the head."* The Thantapulaya women formerly 
wore a thanta garment which covered their front 
and back. The garment is made of the leaves of a 
kind of sledge called thanta (Isolepis articulata), 
which are cut into lengths, woven at one end and 
tied round the waist so that they hang below the 
knees and cover the front and back. The thanta 
garment has vanished with missionary influence. 
"The Nayadis generally cover their nakedness by 
tying round the waist low strings of leaves and 
plants."! The Vettnvans of North Malabar, the 
Juangs of Chota Nagpur, the Sakai, and the Jakuns 
of the Malay Peninsula wear dresses of leaves. 
Owing to frequent contact with the people of the 
plains and the influence of the missionaries and 
work in the plantations, the leafy garment has 
been discarded. 

A German scholar divides the clothing into 
two types, tropical and arctic. The first of these 
is based on the waist cloth or girdle which varies 
between the string of beadvS and the cloak as two 
extremes. The Kanikkar of Nedumangad now 
wear the scantiest of clothing. It consists of an 
under cloth kept in position by a string tied round 
the loins. Over this is suspended an apron 2% 
feet long and 1^ feet broad, one free end of which 
is tucked up into the girdle tightly round the loins. 
They are better clad where they are in contact with 
the people of the plains. 

* Rav. Mftteer, Laud of Charity, 1917, p. 49. 
t Padmanabha Motion, K. P. The History of Kerala, Vol. III. 
p. 550. 

K 



66. THE ABORIGINES OF TBAVANCOEE [VOL. III. 



Mutilations and Deformations 

Closely connected with clothing are the muti- 
lations and deformations which are intended to 
serve the purpose of adornment. Among the Mala- 
vetans of Travancore is found the most interesting 
custom of chipping the upper incisor teeth in the 
form of serrated cones. "On being asked whether 
they have any tradition about the custom of tooth- 
filing, they replied that, "it is to distinguish our 
caste. Our god Chathan will be hungry, if we 
neglect the custom."* The operation is done by 
men for men and women for women. Before 
chipping, the outer edges of the teeth are smeared 
with chunnam. It is supposed to make chipping 
easier. The chipping is done with a small knife 
or bill-hook. The girl to be operated on rests her 
head on the lap of a woman who holds it firmly. 
A third woman takes a small knife and chips 
away the teeth. The custom is found among the 
Kadars of the Cochin State, the Malays, and among 
several tribes in Africa and Australia. 

The Kanikkar of Kallar tatoo to enhance 
personal beauty. The operation is the woman 's 
job. It is done single-handed. With males, tatoo- 
jng takes the form of a circle, while it is half -moon 
among women. Lamp-black or charcoal powder of 
cocoanut shell is mixed up with the breast-milk of 
the woman. She pricks the skin on the forehead 
with the needles, and it is painted over the pricked 

* Mrs. .1. W.iEvans. Madras Museum Bulletin, Vol. Ill, No. 1, 
1900. The Malavedara of Travancon*, p. 86. 



VOL. HI.] DOMESTIC LIFE 67 



part every alternate day for early healing. Tatoo- 
ing is' found among the Kadars and Malsirs of the 
Cochin State, and the Todas of the Nilgiris. 

The women have dilated ear-lobes among the 
Mannans, the Vettuvans, the Malankuravans, the 
Malayarayans, and others. Ear-tubes of reed or 
brass are worn. Strings of beads adorn the neck 
of women. 

Food-quest 

Food is the urgent and recurrent need of man. 
It indicates his activities in relation to land at 
every stage of economic development, fixes the loca- 
lity for residence, and determines the extent from 
which maintenance may be drawn, and the dura- 
tion of residence thereon depends on the food 
supply. The South Indian hills have still ever- 
green forests yielding abundance of fruits and 
tubers, and streamlets with abundance of fish. 
There arc animals for game. The Malapantarams 
are a small tribe in the hunting stage of civilization. 
They are found in high forests where the average 
rainfall is about 180 inches per annum. Owing to 
the luxuriance of vegetation, they are still within 
the tyranny of the jungle. They live in families of 
two or three in a locality. The smaller the number, 
the easier is the supply of food obtained. They, 
remain for a week in a locality, and then move on 
to another when the food-supply is exhausted. 
Each pack has its own jurisdiction for its wander- 
ing and food-supply. They do not allow another of 
their tribe to encroach on their domain. If any 



68 THE ABOEIGINES OF TKAVANCOBE [VOL. III. 



one dares to do so, it shall he at the risk of his life. 
They may average ahout one per square mife, and 
they live on the pith of Arenga Wightii, Caryota 
urcns, and on Curcuma aungustifolia. The Pambu- 
Pulayas (Malsirs) of Anjanad live on snakes, such 
as python, which they kill dexterously. The 
Kadars of the Cochin State live on various edible 
roots and tubers. The Kheriyas, the Birhors of 
Hazaribagh, and the Irulas of the Nilgiris wander 
through the jungles, and subsist on yams, honey, 
and tubers of various kinds. Slender are the ties 
which fasten them to agriculture. 

The Kanikkfir, the Malayarayans, the tJralis, 
the Paliymis, the Muthuvans, and the Vishavans 
are nomadic agriculturists owing to diminution of 
edible roots and game. They have a clear concep- 
tion of tribal lands. Agriculture is adopted as an 
adjunct to the chase. It enables them to live 
together in one place and accumulate the necessa- 
ries of life. The tribes on lower elevations have 
rice as their staple food, while the Malapulayas, 
the Muthuvans, the Mannans, and the Paliyans live 
on rice and ragi. All of them eat the flesh of 
sambur, jungle squirrel, wild fowl, and black mon- 
key. They also eat crabs, rats, and fish. 

The Uralis do not drink cow products. As 
Sir William Crooke says, it may be that they, like 
the Dravidian tribes of Southern India, regard it 
as an excrement. The Ullatans do not drink 
buffalo milk, as they fear that their gods \rould 
get annoyed and would not respond to their appeals. 
There is no taboo against cow's milk. A Kani- 




Urali Tree-House* 



VOL. III.] DOMESTIC LIFE 69 

kkaran used to vomit and get head-ache if he 
drank milk. The Muthuvan, the Mannans, and the 
Kanikkar have taken to coffee, while tea has become 
indispensable to the Uralis. Living as the Uralis, 
the Mannans, and the Muthnvans do on high eleva- 
tion, they are fond of arrack. In the words of 
Montesquc, the prevalence of intoxication in 
different parts of the earth is proportionate to the 
cold and humidity of the air. It may be that a 
gloomy temperament and a cheerless life may induce 
people to artificial cheerfulness produced by drink. 

Production of Fire 

The production of food is connected with the 
production of fire, for which the savages exercise 
their ingenuity in a variety of ways. Like the 
Aiidamaiiese, the Malapantarams were ignorant of 
the art of making fire. Tradition has it among 
the Kanikkar that it was the sage Narada who 
taught them how to make fire by means of a hand- 
drill. Sticks of Unnam (Grcwia tiliaefolia) and 
Ixora Coryfolia are used. A slot %inch deep is made 
in the centre of the stick. A man keeps it in posi- 
tion under his big too, takes a round stick of hard 
wood 18 inches long, holds it on in a vertical posi- 
tion keeping one end of it in the slot, and turns it 
quickly backwards and forwards with both his 
hands. A portion of the wood dust produced in 
the process remains in the slot and the heat gene- 
rated by friction ignites it. This process was in 
vogue among the Malavetans and the Ullatans. 



70 THE ABORIGINES OF TBAVANCOBE [VOL. III. 

The Kanikkar also make fire by the flint and 
steel method. Pieces of flint and steel and some 
floss of Caryota ureiis are the materials required. 
The floss is held near the flint and the latter is 
stuck with the steel. The friction produces sparks 
of fire which ignites the floss. This process is 
resorted to in cold weather. The method of making 
fire with flint and steel is in vogue among the 
Muthuvans, the Mannaiis, the Malayarayans, and 
the Vishavans. It has almost died out among the 
Malapulayas, the Paliyans, the Ullatans, and is 
known among the Kadars of the Cochin State and 
the Badagas of the Nilgiris. "The Pulayas knew 
how to make fire by fricton of wood as well as 
stone."* Safety matches have now taken their 
place. 

Habitations 

Natural shelters, namely caverns, overhang- 
ing rocks, holes in the ground, and hollow trunks 
may have been the abode of primitive man. The 
Malapantarams and the Kanikkar may once have 
occupied them. The Thantapulayas are also called 
Kuzhipulayas in memory of their having taken 
shelter in burrows in former times. 

The Malapantarams make the simplest of dwell- 
ings. They live together in rock-shelters or under 
break-winds made of junglewood posts and thatch- 
ed with plantain leaves, which accommodate two 
persons. The hut is circular and conical, and the 

* Thurgton, Ethnographic Notes in Southern India, p. 468. 




A Muthuvan Bachelor^HalK 




A Kanapulaya Hut showing seclusiorvshed 



VOL, III.] DOMESTIC UFE 71 

floor is on a level with the ground ; and has hardly 
room for a husband, wife, and child. Boys and 
girls are housed for the night in separate sheds 
close to the paternal roof. The Chenchus live in 
caves, and the Birhors put up sheds in the form of 
low kumbas or raw shelters. 

The Kanikkar have a better type of dwelling. 
The huts are wide apart in some places. Bamboo 
forms the chief building material. The floor of 
the hut is on a level with the ground. Tree-houses 
are found where wild elephants roam about In 
parts of Klamala Reserve. A single bamboo with 
the shoots on the sides cut short serves as a ladder. 
According to Lord Avebury, many savage tribes 
live in lake dwellings, and the Graros of Assam 
and the Kanikkar of Travancore are reckoned by 
him tp live in dwellings 8 to 10 feet from the ground, 
the object being protection from man and wild 
animals. A survival of this custom was found 
among the Kanikkar of Mothiramala, where two 
pile-dwellings were seen by me. Dr. Keane does 
not attach much importance to pile-dwellings. He 
does not agree that this custom was peculiar to 
the backward races. They are more sanitary than 
the other huts in which they dwell. One feature 
of the domestic architecture of the lower culture 
is the institution of the bachelor-hall, where the 
young men of the community sleep and live. It 
is an important means of preserving social life. It 
is found in a conspicuous building in Mothiramala, 
Chembikunnu, and Kottur. Unmarried girls re- 
main in a liut vacated for them. This practice 
is also seen among the Muthuvans and the Mannans. 



72 THE ABORIGINES OF TRAVANCOBE [Voi. HL 

The Muthuvan, the Mannan, and the Paliyan 
huts are found together in a group, as they are 
living on higher elevations. The idea of defence 
is the first motive in the grouping of huts into 
villages. Each village has a common place of wor- 
ship, a chavadi for visitors, and separate dormi- 
tories for boys and girls. The Urali huts are 
isolated. Each man has a tree-house which is 
about 50 feet above ground. They spend their 
nights in it for fear of elephants. Each hamlet 
has a common tree-house reserved for women in 
menses. There is a common tree-house as granary. 
The huts of the Malayarayan, the Ullatans, and 
the Malapulayas are of an improved type, as the 
floor is raised from the ground, and they have 
mud walling. The Vetans, the Malankuravans, and 
the Thaiitapulayas live in miserable huts. The 
dwellings of the Kanapulayas are neat huts formed 
of junglewoocl posts with walls of mud or laterite 
stones, and thatched with straw. They are gene- 
rally situated by the side of paddy flats or nestle 
under trees along their borders. The institution 
of the bachelor-hall is found among the Porojas of 
Vizagapatam Agency, the Nagas, the Lusheis, the 
Andamanese, and others. 

Furniture and Utensils 

The primitive tribes of Travancore live in the 
region of the bamboo and the reed. These mate- 
rials are used for a variety of purposes. There 
is a family likeness among all articles made by 
tropical peoples and this is accounted for by the 



VOL. III.] DOMESTIC LIFE 73 



uniformity of climate and environment. The 
domestic utensils consist of a few bamboo tubes 
whoso intemodes provide them with the necessary 
bottom, a few cane baskets for keeping grain, and 
brass vessels among the Malayarayans, the Muthu- 
vans, arid the Uralis. 

Weapons and tools 

Primitive man ransacked his environment and 
got the best out of it which his grade of culture 

was capable of extracting. His prime necessity 
was food, and he was more a gatherer than a 
hunter. This necessitated the use of some weapons. 
The digging stick is still used by the Malapantaram, 
the Malavetan, the Vishavan, and others to collect 
wild roots and tubers. The Kanikkar who have 
been using the wooden hoc for raking up the soil, 
and the digging spud, have taken to the use of the 
axe, bill-hook, and spade. 

The Bow 

How primitive man developed the bow and 
arrow is not easily imaginable. It is just possible 
that it is the invention of the Negrito, as it is found 
in the Andamans among them where they are in a 
state of hostile isolation.* In Travancore, the bow 
is still used by the Kanikkar, the Muthuvan, the 
Urali, the Ullatan, and others to kill animals which 
do damage to their crops. The bow is made of 
a single stave. It is made of Nara (Polyalthia 
fragrans) or bamboo. The string is made of the 

* Hutton. J. H-. The Ceusiis of India, 1931. I Part T p. 44^7 



74 THE ABORIGINES OP TBAVANCOKE [VOL. III. 



fibre of the adventitious roots of Ficus and is 
tied to notches at the end of the stave. The arrow 
is made up of reed. To steady the flight of the 
arrow, three rows of fowl's feathers are struck 
into it with gum. They say that their ancestors 
were a stronger people and that they used to kill 
bigger animals. They have grown weak, since they 
took to the use of the gun. 

The Kanikkar also use the pellet-bow. They 
use pellets of stone which are flung with great force. 
The stave is made of bamboo. It is wider at the 
centre. It is used for killing small game and for 
driving away monkeys. 

Blow-Tube 

The Muthuvans and the Vishavans kill birds 
by means of the blow-tube. It is made of reed, 
and is 50 inches long with a diameter of 14 inch. 
The dart is 5 inches long pointed at one end and 
winged at the other. The dart is propelled by the 
breath and covers a distance of 50 to 75 feet. It 
is found among the Muthuvans of the Palny Hills 
and the Malays. Dr. Button thinks that there is 
no possibility at all of these blow-guns having come 
from the Malay Penninsula, though Mr. Foulkes 
said that he had seen on the Madras coast blow- 
guns which were admittedly imported from Malay 
Peninsula. Dr. Hutton is of opinion that the 
presence of the blow-gun may possibly be credited 
to the Proto-Australoid.* One thing is evident: 
it occurs wherever larger reeds grow. 

* Button, Census of India, 1931, Vol. I, part 1.. p. 444. 




^iuthovain blowing his 




A. Visha.vaLn 



fish. 



VOL. III.] DOMESTIC LIFE 75 



The Vishavans use the Muppati or three 
pronged iron for spearing fish. The modern hill- 
tribes are aware of the use of iron. The Nayadis 
collect honey with the aid of a Kothuli. This 
consists of an iron piece sharp at an end fitted ijito 
a wooden handle. 



CHAPTER VI 

EXOGAMY 
Introduction 

Sir James Frazer calls Southern India the 
classic home of exogamy. The social organization 
of the hill-tribes of Travaiicore is built on the 
foundation of exogamy. Primitive peoples attached 
the greatest importance to the rules of exogamy, 
and the punishments inflicted for any breach there- 
of were very severe. The tribe forms the outer 
circle within which a man must marry. Witliin the 
circle there are sub-divisions, and persons belong- 
ing to these sub-divisions are prohibited from mar- 
rying within the sub-division. They are called exo- 
gamous groups or clans. The theory is that mem- 
bers of a clan are descended from the same male 
ancestor, and are, therefore, related. Hence marri- 
age is not allowed within the clan. The clan may be 
defined as a unilateral kinship through either parent 
to the total exclusion of the other. 

Malap ant dram 

The Malapantarams are the least modified sur- 
vival of the aboriginal population of Travancore. 
They have 110 clan system, but there are two groups 
among them consisting of three or four families 
having no distinct names. Each group is exo- 
gamous. A man marries the daughter of his ma- 
ternal uncle or of his father's sister. Thus double 
cross-cousin marriage is practised. 



VOL. III.] EXOGAMY 77 



Kanikkar 

The Kanikkar of South Travancore have a more 
highly developed system of exogamous clans than 
those in Quilon and Shencotta Divisions. In the 
vicinity of Kulathupuzha, where they have been 
under more civilizing influences, there are only two 
clans and they are known as Muttillom and Menillom* 
The men of each half are obliged to take their 
wives from the other half. They trace the origin 
of the clan to the carcase of an elephant. The man 
who saw the haunches and hind limbs of the carcase 
belonged to Muttillom, and he who saw its trunk 
belonged to Menillom. The Kanikkar of the present 
day claim to be the descendants of these two ances- 
tors. There are four clans among the Kanikkar 
of Naravelli in Nedumangad taluq. They are 
Muttillom, Menillom, Kayyillom, and Palillom, and 
all are exogamous. Members of Muttillom and 
Menillom, considered to be superior to the other 
clans, intermarry. There is neither intermarriage 
nor interdining between these and the other two 
clans. The members of the two inferior clans 
are not even invited to the marriage ceremonies of 
the superior clans, and if they attend the cere- 
monies uninvited, they are fed only after the supe- 
rior clans have had their feast. In less developed 
areas of Neyyathumkara Range, there are two dis- 
tinct divisions or phratries, the Annanthambi phra- 
try and Macchambi phratry. The Annanthambi 
phratry includes the clans of Menillom, Perinchil- 
lom, and Kayyillom, and Macchambi phratry, the 



78 THE ABORIGINES OF TRAVANCORE [VoL. HI. 

clans of Muttillom, Velanatillom, and Kurumillom. 
Intermarriage between members of the different 
clans of the same phratry is prohibited. 

Interesting stories are current among the Kani- 
kkar as to the origin of their clans. The ancestors 
of the Kanikkar of Mothiramala felt an abhorrence 
to the promiscuous life they led in the past. With 
a view to evolving order out of this chaotic social 
condition, Illampalli Muthan and Thiruvanpalli 
Muthan decided that there should be a dual organi- 
zation of the Kanikkar, namely, Annanthambi 
illakkars and Macchambi illakkars. Each division 
was further sub-divided into five clans, and the 
Kanikkar of the present day are said to be their 
descendants. 

The Kanikkar of Mankutty have invented a 
very ingenious story about the origin of the clan 
system. The story is that a sambur once did great 
havoc to their crop and the man who shot an arrow 
at the animal and killed it became Kurmillom. The 
men who sat on the hedge and saw the incident 
became Velillom and another who watched the fun 
at a distance, Velanatillom. The man who removed 
the sambur 's head became Muttillom and one who 
carried the forelimbs, Kayyillom. Another who 
bundled a small quantity of flesh in leaves which 
swelled its appearance, belonged to Perimanillom. 
The man who removed the bowels became Man- 
gotillom, and one who removed the udder of the 
carcase,, Palamalaillom. Lastly, a man who left a 
python in water belonged to Perinchillom. 



VOL. III.] EXOGAMY 79 

In the hamlets in the vicinity of Kallar in Nedu- 
mangad taluq, the clans are known by other names, 
and the origin of the clan system is said to be 
different. The Annanthambi phratry includes Vella- 
yillom, Mannatillom, Thumbraillom, Velanatillom, 
Mulaikonathillom, and Muttillom. The Macchambi 
phratry includes Menillom, Patikayillom, 'Erum- 
biyat illom, Paramala illom, and Pothottillom. Re- 
garding the origin of these clans, it is said that 
once a wild elephant lay dead in the jungle, and that 
different parts of its carcase were appropriated by 
different men, from whom originated the different 
clans. The man who only got the earth where the 
carcase lay belonged to Mannatillom. One who 
carried away the genital organ became Thumbara 
illom. The man who removed the heart belonged 
to Vellayillom. The man who got the lion's share 
of the flesh belonged to Menillom. One who got only 
the ants that swarmed there belonged to Erumbiyat 
illom. Mulaikonath, Patika, and Pothottilloms are 
named after the places called Mulaikonam, Patika, 
and Pothode. As regards Paramala illom it is said 
that a Kanikkar boy and girl were found hiding 
in a rock cave called Paramala and they were re- 
moved to the nearest hamlet and brought up. The 
children of the girl belonged to the Paramala illom. 
Those who saw and enjoyed all the fun belonged 
to the Velanat illom. Dr. Edgar Thurston gives 
currency to the theory that clans are named after 
mountains and places such as Palamala, Thalamala 
etc. This view is not entirely correct as regards 
the Kanikkar of the present day. 



80 THE ABORIGINES OF TRAVANCOBE [VoL. III. 

The system of tracing kinship through the 
mother is not altogether extinct among the hill- 
tribes of Travancore. Among the Kanikkar, the 
children of a man of Kuruinillom clan by his wife 
of Porincliillom clan belong to the latter clan. Ac- 
cording to the rules of exogamy, no man is allowed 
to marry a woman of his own clan. As a woman 's 
children belong to a clan different from that of her 
brother 's children, it follows that these children who 
are cross-cousins can intermarry according to the 
rule of exogamy. On the other hand, children of 
brothers or of sisters belong to the exogamous clan, 
and cannot therefore intermarry. Though double 
cross-cousin marriage is permissible, a man gene- 
rally marries the daughter of his maternal uncle. 
A child is generally named after a member of the 
mother's clan, a maternal uncle, an. aunt, or mater- 
nal grandparent. Scholars, like Sir Henry Maine 
and M. Fustel De Coulaiiges, did not recognize the 
system of female descent and thought that the exo- 
gamous clan with male descent was an extension of 
the patriarchal family which was the original unit 
of society. The wide distribution of exogamy 
and the probable priority of matriarchy to patri- 
archy was first brought into prominence by Mc- 
Lennan.*. Under the system of female descent, 
there was no transfer of clanship among the Ka- 
nikkar. The children belonged to the mother's clan. 
With the introduction of male kinship came the 
practice of transferring a woman from her own clan 
to that of her husband. 

* R. V. Kussel The Tribes and Castes of Central Provinces' 
Vol. 1, p. 144. 



VOL. III.] EXOGAMY 81 



Mutbiwan 

The Muthuvans of Neriamangalam Range are 
divided into a number of exogamous clans, such as 
Melakuttom, Kanakuttom, Thushamkuttom, Putha- 
nikuttom, Kanayathukuttom, Ellikuttom. Members 
of Kanakuttom and Melakuttom clans consider 
themselves to be superior to the remaining 1 four 
clans, and do not intermarry with them. 

Melakuttom includes the Vakas or chieftains of 
the Muthuvans. This clan is said to be superior to all 
the other clans and members of this clan intermarry 
only with those of the Kanakuttom clan. The mem- 
bers of Thushanikuttom are also the vassals of the 
Vaka. They also do manual labour for him. The 
members of Kanayathukuttom clan are also vassals 
of the Vaka., but they enjoy the special privilege of 
putting up a thatti (elevated seat) for the Vaka to 
sit on. The members of Ellikuttom have their own 
Vaka at Kiliparambu. Among the Muthuvans of 
Poopara, there are only three clans, Thushani- 
kuttom, Kanayathukiittom, and Ellikuttom. The 
Mel -Vaka of Molakuttom clan is recognized as 
their chief, and he still receives the fines imposed on 
delinquents. The Muthuvans of Kudakad in Anja- 
nad have only two clans, Suryanayar and Arya- 
nayar, and they are exogamous. They do not re- 
cognize the Mel-Vaka as their chief. 

Like those of the Kanikkar of South Travan- 
core, the children of a Muthuvan family belong to 
the clan of the mother. The husband is respon- 
sible for the maintenance of his wife and children. 



82 THE ABORIGINES OF TBAVANCOBE [VOL. III. 

The debts of children are a charge not on the father 

but on the maternal uncle, and a man's debts devolve 
s on his nephews (sister's sons). Male children are 
named after their maternal uncle or grandfather; 
daughters are named after their maternal grand- 
mother or aunt. A man invariably marries the 
daughter of his maternal uncle. 

Vishavans 

The Vishavans of Idyara valley are divided 
into eight clans: 

1. Kunnikkar 5. Ponneyankar 

2. Alappankar 6. Pezhatikar 

3. Marungathukar 7. Pokkankar 

4. Thonnikar 8. Kraplikar 

Sir Herbert Bisley classifies the names of exoga- 
mous divisions as eponymous, territorial or local, 
titular and totemistic. The clans of the Vishavans 
are territorial. They are named after some village 
in which the members of the clan originally resided. 
Thus Maringathukar are those who came from 
Maringath. Kraplikar are those who came from 
Krapli. Groups of Vishavans occupied parts of 
the Idyara valley and came to be known by the 
name of the locality where they lived. Pezhatikar 
are said to be indigenous. When they began to 
decline in numbers, they contracted connections 
with those in the Cochin State, and these came over 
and settled in some parts of the Idyara Valley. 

The Pezhatikar and Pokkankar consider them- 
selves to be superior to the other clans and the 



VOL. III.] EXOGAMY 83 



headman is selected from these clans. This superio- 
rity (iocs not, however, operate as a bar to inter- 
marriage. The first three clans regard themselves 
as belonging to one stock and so 110 intermarriage 
is allowed among them. But they can intermarry 
from the remaining five clans. Marriage between 
cross-cousins is prohibited among them. A man is 
free to marry any woman outside his clan and has 
thus a wider choice of a mate. They state that this 
prohibition is due to the fact that consanguinous 
marriages are fraught with danger. This is in 
accord with the views of Westermarck who says 
that consanguinous marriages are more injurious 
in savage regions where the struggle for existence 
is often more severe than they have proved to be 
in civilized society. 

Uralis 

The Uralis of Periyar and Vandamet are 
divided into eight cxoganaous clans: 

1. Kanakuttom 5. Enniyarikuttom 

2. Vettikuttom 6. Periyilakuttom 

3. Onakuttom 7. Kodiyarikuttom 

4. Thuriyakuttom 8. Vayanavar- '' 
* kuttom 

Among the Uralis of Thodupuzha Range, there 
are only four clans, Kanakuttom, Periyilakuttom, 
Kodiyarikuttom, and Enniyarikuttom. The Uralis 
of Neriamangalam have the four clans of Vayana- 
varkuttom, Kanakuttom, Thuriyakuttom, and Peri- 
yilakuttom. 



84 THE ABORIGINES OF TRAVANCOEE [VoL. III. 

There is a fanciful story of the origin of these 
clans. The man who went trudging in the Kftnam 
(high forest) belonged to Kanakuttom; those who 
went clearing the way belonged to Vettikuttom ; 
those who went easing themselves on the way be- 
longed to Thuriy akuttom ; those who swept away 
the refuse belonged to Periyilakuttom; those who 
numbered the cut stumps on the way belonged to 

Enniyarikuttom, and lastly, those who attended a 
feast on Onam day belonged to Onakuttom. The 
clans are exogamous and the children belong to the 
clan of the mother, and are given names after those 
of the members of the mother's clan. 

The solidarity of the clan is evident in a variety 
of ways. Members of the same clan consider them- 
selves to be brothers and sisters. If a man dies, 
all the clansmen observe pollution for 16 days in 
Neriamangalam and 7 days in Thodupuzha. All 
the clansmen contribute towards the expenses for 
funeral ceremonies on the 15th and 16th day. If 
a fine is inflicted on a man for an offence like adul- 
tery, the members of the clan collect and pay the 
fine. Lastly, all the members of a clan help a man 
with seed and paddy, if he has a poor harvest. 

Manndns 

The Mannans of Maimankandam are divided 
into two phratries, the Kandathu Burnakudi and 
Chalugupattu TJrukar. The Kandathu Burnakudi, 
Tekkada Ailavu, Mutlmvar Aravakudi, Kandamala 
Panikudi, and Malakad Panikudi constitute one 
phratry. The other phratry comprises Muppankad, 



VOL. III.] EXOGAMY 85 



Nagamala, Adakad Nagamala, Kodiyan Nagamala, 
Afnbattan Nagamala, and Pannivirayan. The mem- 
bers of a clan in one phratry can marry only a 
woman from a clan of the other phratry. The 
Kandathu Biirna Kudikars are superior to the < mem- 
bers of the other clans. The Ambattan Nagamala- 
kars arc barbers and are inferior to others. 

In the Poopara Range, two phratries are 
observed. One phratry includes the clans of Arava- 
kudi, Muppaukad Nagamala, Edattupattu Uruga- 
ran, Adakad Nagamala, Paimiviryan, Muthuvar 
Aravakudi, and Unangathad Aravakudi. The other 
phratry includes the clans of Thekkada Ailavu, 
Rajakad Ailavu, Panikudi, and Malakad Panikudi. 
In the Periyar Range, there are two exogamous 
clans," Panikudi and Aravakudi. The Mannans of 
Vandamet have the following exogamous clans of 
Aravanktidi, Nattumannankudi, Thoprankudi, Eda- 
dankudi, Panikankudi, Uraliyankudi, Maniyaran- 
kudi, Ainakadankudi, Kumblaiikudi, and Kalkundal- 
kudi. Some of the clans are named after places 
where they live. A woman retains her clan after 
marriage. A child follows the clan of the mother. 

Malay arayan 

The Malayarayans of Central Travancore are 
divided into six clans. Vala illom are the descend- 
ants of a man who presented bangles to the Ambala- 
puzha chief (Vala means bangle); Enna-illom, of 
a man who presented oil to the chief (Enna means 
oil) ; Mundillom, of a man who presented cloth to 
the chief (Mundu means cloth) ; and Puthani illom, 



86 THE ABORIGINES OF TRAVANCORE [VoL. HI. 



of a man who presented flowers to the chief (Puvu 
means flower). Besides these four, there are also 
Korangani illom and Panthirayira illom. The first 
two clans claim superiority over the other. MundiL 
lakars and Puthani illakars are Machambi illakars 
to the members of the first two clans. The last two 
clans are the lowest in social status. 

In the Thodupuzha Range, they are divided 
into the five clans of Puthani illom, Mala illom, 
Nellipalli illom, Vala illom, and Modalikad illom. 
To Mala illom belong the descendants of a man who 
presented garlands to Cheraman Perumal, to 
Puthani illom, of the man who presented flowers ; to 
Nellipalli illom, of the man who presented paddy; 
to Vala illom, of the man who presented bangles; 
and to Modalikad, of the man who peered through a 
hole unnoticed. Vala and Mala illoms are annan- 
thambi or brother illoms, and a man of one of these 
clans can marry a woman from Nellipalli, Modali- 
kad, and Puthani illoms. Modalikad illom is said 
to be inferior to the other illoms. 

A Malayarayan is forbidden to marry a woman 
of his own clan. A man's children belong to his 
wife's clan, and' they are named after the maternal 
grandparent, uncle or aunt. The tie of clan is as 
strong as that of blood, since it creates a sense of 
common obligations and common responsibilities. 
In the case of the death of a member of a clan in 
Thodupuzha, all the members of the same clan 
observe death pollution for sixteen days, no matter 
in which hamlet they stay. One of the traces of the 



VOL. III.] EXOGAMY 87 



old solidarity of the clan exists in the recognition by 
every member of the clan of his duty to welcome 
any other member, however unrelated, as his brother. 

Malavetan 

The Malavetans are divided into five endoga- 
mous groups, the Cheruvetan, the Chingannivetan, 
Elichathivetan, Tolvetan, and Valiavetan. The 
Cheruvetans, who are otherwise known as Vettu- 
vaiis, are found in and outside Kumaranperur 
Reserve of the Rani Range. They comprise four 
exogamous clans. 

1. Venatanillom 3. Churalayar illom 

2. Vendirillom 4. Modanadan illom 
A man is free to marry a woman outside his clan. 
A woman after marriage continues to be of her 
own clan and the children belong to her clan. 

Malankiiravcm 

The Malankuravan is divided into eight exoga- 
mous clans: 

1. Menati illom 5. Thechira illom 

2. Kara illom 6. Vayana illom 

3. Kurunthadi illom 7. Venni illom 

4. Pallikal illom 8. Onthi illom 

The Menati illakars consider themselves to be supe- 
rior to the other clans. Men of this clan take wives 
only from Thechira, Venni, Kurunthadi, Pallikal, 
and Kara illoms, but not from the other two clans. 
Marriage within the clan is forbidden. A man 



88 ' THE ABORIGINES OF TRAVANCORE [VOL. III. 

marries the (laughter of his maternal uncle, but not 
the daughter of his father 's sister, as she is reckoned 
to be his sister. 

Ullatan 

The Ullatans who are found in the jungle are 
divided into four exogamous clans: 

1. Karancheri illom 3. Kavattu illom 

2. Madapalli illom 4. Perakala illom 
The illoms take after the names of places. The 
Karancheri illakars came from Karancheri. The 
first two clans form brother illoms and are exoga- 
nious to the last two clans. A woman retains her 
clan after marriage, and her children belong to her 
clan. The father and son are never of the same 
olaii. The clans have suffered extinction among the 
Ullatans of the low country. Contact with civilized 
men has dismembered the Ullatan clan system. 



The Pulayas have a well developed system of 
exogamy. The Kanapulayas are divided into two 
phratries. Vadavathu kuttom, Mampalli kuttom, 
Cherakat kuttom, and Adu kuttom constitute one 
phratry, while Paliyana kuttom, Padathi kuttom, 
Paruthi kuttom, Nedumattathu kuttom, and Nor- 
kuttu kuttom form the other phratry. A man can 
only marry a woman in a clan of another phratry. 
A woman retains her clan after marriage. Child- 
ren follow the clan of the mother who can take her 
children with her in case of any quarrel between 
her and her husband. 



VOL. III.] EXOGAMY 89 



Parana 

The Minneketti Parayas are divided into the 
following clans: 

1. Kanjiram illom 7. Konchi illom 

2. Thachan illom 8. Kovani illom v 

3. Poonjeri illom 9. Mylai illom 

4. Pey illom 10. Vayyotan illom 

5. Velli illom 11. Cherunatan illom 

6. Thazhakara illom 12. Nednngad illom 
The Perum Parayan of the Poonjeri clan is said to 
be responsible for the clan division. The Thachan 
and Poonjeri clans are superior to all the other 
clans. The clans are exogamous and descent is 
exclusively through the females. The clan names 
are derived from names of places. 

Views on Exogamy 

The wide distribution of exogamy and the 
probable priority of female descent to that of male 
descent were pointed out by McLennan. The re- 
lation found to exist between a man and his sister's 
children among the Muthuvans and the Mannans 
may be a survival of the ancient system of matri- 
archy, under which a woman 's children belonged 
to her family, and her husband had no proprietory 
right or authority over them. Under the system of 
female kinship, there was no change of clanship 
after marriage, and both the husband and the wife 
retained their own clans, and the children belonged 
to the mother's clan. This is the case among the 



90 THE ABORIGINES OF TRAVABTCORE [VOL. III. 



Kanikkar, the Muthuvan, the Mannan, the Mala- 
yarayan, the Vishavan, the Parayas, the Pulayas, 
and others. Since the bride is taken to live "with 
her husband wherever his residence may be, the 
clans are spread all over the area. Their civili- 
zation is based on the clan. The idea of the family 
is said to be a newcomer to the field, and to be 
struggling with the clan for influence. Its entrance 
into the social life of the tribe as a patrilineal 
institution may be accounted for by the rule that on 
marriage a wife goes to her husband's dwelling 
and makes her abode there. He does not go to that 
of her kindred. Again, the woman is generally 
married by purchase among the Pulayas, the 
Malankuravans, the MalaviHans, and others. The 
payment of a bride-price transfers to the husband 
the exclusive possession of the wife, and the right 
of the children that may be born of the union. But 
the transfer of the children involves more than 
their possession and control. It involves the 
reckoning of descent from the husband and his 
forefathers instead of from his wife and her fore- 
fathers. The primitive tribes of Travancore have 
not abandoned the old reckoning. All their clans 
count their descent through the mother. As 
Hartland puts it, "A clan is a natural mutual aid 
society ".* Most of the clansmen contribute the 
funeral expenses of a clansman and observe pollu- 
tion for sixteen days. "The clan is still the pillar 
of their social structure". The father as the head 
of the new institution of the family is recognized 

* The Frazer Leoturen 1922-1932 The Evolution of Kinship 
by Sidney Hartland, pp. 10 J 5. 



VOL. III.] EXOGAMY 91 



as the ruler of the household. Though the children 
are his, and remain with him, they do not belong to 
his clan; and his control over them, even while 
the mother is part of the household, is overridden 
by the claims of her clan exercised through her 
brothers. When a boy is to be married, the uncle 
plays an important part in the settlement of marri- 
age and the amount of the bride-price to be received 
or given. The nephew also succeeds to the uncle's 
property even now among the Muthuvans, the 
Maiinfms, and others. The family was continued 
through the mother. All rank and property descen- 
ded through her. "In short, birth sanctified the 
child".* Matrimonial descent is now fighting a 
losing battle. Most of them are becoming patri- 
lincal. ,... 

The classificatory vSystem of relationship does 
not appear to have been affected by the divisions of 
a community into exogainous clans. The successive 
division of a community into two, four, and eight 
exogamous groups seems to have been intended 
to prevent the marriage of relations of various 
degrees. The division of a clan into two was adopt- 
ed for the purpose of preventing the marriage of 
brothers and sisters. Brothers and sisters belong- 
ed to the same clan, and marriage between members 
of the same clan was tabooed. Under the two 
clan system, the exchange of sisters became the 
regular mode of obtaining wives. Among the 
Vishavans of Idyara Valley and the Ina Pulayas, 

* The Frazer Lectures Tho Evolution of Kinship An African 
Study by Sidney Hartland. pp. 10-15, 



92 THE ABORIGINES OF TRAVANCORE [VoL. HI. 



the number of exogamous clans was increased to 
eight and this was probably done to prevent the 
marriage of cross-cousins. 

Westermarck is of the opinion that the custom 
of naming the child after the mother is capable of 
widely different interpretations. " Among savages " 
he writes, "the tic between mother and child 
is much stronger than that which binds a child to its 
father. Moreover in cases of separation, occurring 
frequently at the lower stages of civilization, the 
infant children always follow the mother, and so 
very often, do children more advanced in years. 
In these circumstances, it is a matter for no wonder 
if a child takes its name after the mother rather 
than the father".* Travancore still furnishes an 
example of a tribe in the hunting stage of Civiliza- 
tion (Malapantaram) among whom children are 
named after the father and descent is patrilineal. 



* Ralph De Poinerai Marriage, Past, Present and Future, p. 20 




A Muthuvan Bamboo comb. 



CHAPTER VII 

MARRIAGE 
Introductory 

Marriage is the joining together of a niaa and a 
woman. Before marriage, the sexes are separated 
by sexual taboo. At marriage they are joined to- 
gether by the same ideas, worked down to their 
logical conclusion in reciprocity of relation. Those 
who were mutually taboo now break the taboo.* 
Speaking generally, marriage is the source of the 
family, the safe-guard of private and public morals, 
the srength of the natioii.f There are everywhere 
three motives which lead to marriage, mutual sym- 
pathy, the desire for progeny, and the necessity 
for mutual aid in the struggle for existence, t Pri- 
mitive marriage was dictated by the inexorable 
population need. Travancore is one of the ideal 
places for the study of primitive marriage insti- 
tutions. 

It was conceived by Bachofen that the first 
human society lived in promiscuous intercourse and 
that monogamous marriage was reflected through 
the matriarchate and the age of the Amazons. 
"In all uncultured societies, girls and women, who 
are not married, are under no restrictions as to 
their sexual relations, and are held to be entirely 

* A. E. Crawley, The Mystic Rose, pp. 287 to 286. 

t Calvorton, Sex iq Civilization, p. 231. 

t Oount Keyserlhig, Tho Book of Marriage, p. 54. 



94 THE ABOKIOINES OF TKAVANCOBE [Vol.. III. 



free to dispose of themselves as they please in that 
respect. "* The almost universally accepted idea 
was that the primitive state of mankind was one 
of primal virtue and moral perfection. Anthro- 
pological evidences in India lend themselves to 
different interpretations. Sir Edward Gait says, 
"On. the other hand, most of the aboriginal tribes, 
both Dravidian and Mongolian, the low castes in 
Kashmir and the Punjab Hills, and various low 
castes in the United Provinces, Central Provinces, 
Berar, and Southern India allow the utmost free- 
dom between the sexes prior to marriage, "t Sir 
William Crooke also says that with most of the wild 
tribes, it is, in fact, a rule that, although prenuptial 
intercourse is lightly regarded, misconduct with a 
member of another tribe involves excommunication. $ 
Darwin and Spencer declared the improbability of 
intercourse being ever free, since the passion of 
jealousy is so strong that it cannot be supposed to 
be dormant in primitive communities. Briffault 
says that, "In India it may be said that , wherever 
the practice of infant marriage has not been adopted, 
sexual relations between the unmarried are either 
openly or tacitly recognised. In Burma prenuptial 
freedom is unrestricted in cultured northern 
tribes. " He however admits that "the aboriginal 
races of Southern India differ from those of Nor- 
thern India in that they marry earlier. Conse- 
quently, prenuptial licence is not so apparent as in 

* Robert 3riffault The Mothers, Vol. II, p 2 
T K. A. Gait India Census Report, 1911, p. 243. 
J Briffault, The Mothers, Vol. II, p. 21. 
$ Do. Do. p. 43. 



VOL. III.] MARRIAGE 95 

the northern aboriginal races who marry in adult 
age. M * My researches in Travancore go to show 
that there is not a single tribe in which prennptial 
intercourse between the sexes is permitted. Some 
of the hill-tribes like the Muthuvans, the Mannans, 
and the Kanikkar go to the extent of taking special 
precautions to prevent such intercourse. They keep 
separate dormitories ,where unmarried young wom- 
en sleep at night under the surveillance of an 
elderly woman. 

Forms of Marriage 

The form of marriage varied from time to time 
and from society to society. The earliest form of 
marriage is marriage by capture. A relic of this 
custom is found among the Muthuvans and the 
Mannans. A peculiar practice among the Muthu- 
vans is that, after the marriage is settled, the 
bridegroom forcibly takes away the maiden from 
her mother's house, when she goes out for water 
or fire-wood, and lives with her separately for a 
few days in some secluded part of the forest. They 
then return home, unless they are in the meanwhile, 
searched for and brought back by their relatives. 
Among the Mannans also, it sometimes happens 
that a woman, if she refuses to return the love of 
a man, is forcibly taken away by him. They then 
live together in the forest for ten or twelve days 
and are searched for and taken to the hamlet. The 
offence is generally condoned and they are allowed 
to live as husband and wife. Elopement is also a 

* Brjft'auit, The Mothers, Vol. II, p. 46. 



96 THE ABORIGINES OF TRAVANCORE [VOL. III. 



recognised institution among them, and is resorted 
to if parents object to the union of a man and 
woman. Marriage by capture is found among the 
Malayalis of North Arcot, the Mullukurumbans of 
Wynad, and the Gonds of Central India. 

Marriage by service is an earlier form of 
marriage by purchase. It is prevalent among the 
Paliyans and the Mannans. Among them, the 
bridegroom lives with his future father-in-law for 
six months to one year, and renders service to him 
before the marriage is consummated. The same 
custom is found among the Esquimo, the North- 
American Indians, and the Siberian peoples. It 
is a substitute for marriage by purchase, where the 
purchaser is too poor to pay the bride 's price. 

Marriage by purchase is the recognised form of 
marriage not only among the least civilised races, 
but also among peoples who have reached the 
higher degree of culture. The bride's price which 
is generally given to the father goes to meet either 
wholly or partly the expenses of the marriage. 
Tt is found among the Mnlavetaiis, the Malan- 
kuravans, the Thantapulayas, and the Malapulayas. 
A portion of it goes to the mother and the maternal 
uncle and aunt among the Thantapulayas. Some- 
times marriage by purchase may not be really so, 
for the bridal gift may be an expression of good- 
will or ability to keep a wife and may serve among 
the Malavetans and Malanknravans as a protection 
to the wife against ill-usage, and to the husband 
against misbehaviour on the part of the wife. 



VOL. III.] MARRIAGE 97 



Marriage by exchange of sisters is found among 
the Uralis, Ullatans, the Vishavans, and the Mala- 
pantarams. No man can have a wife unless he 
has a sister whom he can give in exchange. A 
man cannot purchase a wife from her parents by 
giving the equivalent in property of some kind. 
The age of the girl to be given in exchange is ftf no 
consideration. Any Urali who has no sister to 
offer in exchange has to lead a life of single bles- 
sedness. This custom prevails among the Madigas 
of Nilgiris, the Bhotiyns of Almora, and some tribes 
in Beluchistan. 

Cousin Marriage 

The marriage of cross-cousins is characteristic 
of all the tribes except the Vishavans and the Ina- 
Pulayas. It appears to originate in the simplest 
of economic motives the wish and necessity to pay 
for a woman in kind. "Formerly the match bet- 
ween a brother's daughter and sister's son was 
most common. This is said to be a survival of the 
matriarchate, when a man's sister's son was his 
heir."* Marriage between a man and the daughter 
of his maternal uncle is prevalent among the Muthu- 
vans, the Mannans, and the Malankuravans, but 
marriage with the daughter of his father's sister 
is prohibited. Marriage between ortho-cousins is 
tabooed. Among the above mentioned tribes as well 
as among the Malapantarams, the Malavetans and 
the Malayarayans, a father desires and claims the 
marriage of his son with his sister's daughter. 

* Fraiier, Folklore in the Old Testament. Vol. II, p. 120. 



98 THE ABORIGINES OF TRAVANCORE [VOL. III. 

According to Briffault, the idea of distance and 
ignorance of the tribe in other localities with whom 
they can enter into conjugal relations may be another 
reason. In his opinion, girls are never given in 
marriage to young men in distant places. This is 
the case among the primitive tribes of Travancore. 
Cross-cousin marriage not only keeps the families 
together, but also prevents disposal of property. 
In a society where inheritance runs through the 
females, a father wishes to provide for his son, 
and generally marries him to his sister's daughter. 
Outside Travancore, the custom is found among 
the Irulas, the Kurubas, and other tribes. 

Monogamy 

Monogamy had its human origin among the 
poor. Chastity in woman has always been esteem- 
ed as a virtue by man, and monogamy has always 
been a desideratum. Most of the hill-tribes are 
monogamous, and the family is regarded as the 
corner-stone of society. Weddings generally take 
place at night among the Malayarayans, the Mala- 
pulayas, the Muthuvaiis, the Mannans, the Pali- 
yans, and the Malapantarams. Sight is a method 
of contagion in primitive science, and the idea 
coincides with the physiological aversion to see 
dangerous things, and with sexual 'shyness, and 
timidity. Dr. Westermarck's view is that this cus- 
tom is due to a desire to protect the bride and bride- 
groom against dangers from above.* 



* Crasvley, The Mystic Rose, p. 296. 



VOL. III.] MARRIAGE 99 



Polygamy 

" That man is by nature polygamous and woman 
monogamous is biologic rot and has no more sanction 
than the Divine right of Kings, and will eventually 
go into the same discard"* says Dr. Dorsey. Poly- 
gamy marks the end of primitive equality and' the 
disappearance of clan distinctions. It develops in 
a society where private property is an institution. 
Polygamy is prevalent among the Muthuvans, the 
Paliyans, thb Kanikkar, the Malayarayans, the 
Malapulayas and the Pulayas to a limited extent. 
According to Westermarck, "one factor that influ- 
ences this form of marriage is the numerical pro- 
portion of the number of available males and fe- 
males. Whenever there is a marked or more or 
less permanent majority of marriageable women 
in a savage tribe, polygamy is allowed. At the 
lower stages of civilization every man endeavours 
to marry when he has reached puberty and practi- 
cally every woman gets married M .f Among the 
Pulayas, the females do not exceed the males. The 
number of females for every 1000 males is 973 
according to the Census of 1931. The real reason 
for polygamy is then of economic or social character. 
It contributes a man's material comfort or increases 
his wealth through the labour of his wives. It also 
adds to his social importance, reputation, and autho- 
rity. Among the western Pulayas, it is said that 
before a Pulaya dies, he says "Oralum Olakayum 
Elayakutiyum marumakanu". By this declaration, 

* G. A. Dorsey, Why We Behave Like Human Beings, p. 437. 
t Westermarck, The Future of marriage i n Western Civilization' 



100 THE ABORIGINES OF TEAVANCOBE [VoL*. III. 



the nephew of the Pulaya inherits the mortar 
and pestle and the youngest wife of his uncle. 
He keeps his aunt as his wife. This custom has 
almost died out. Among the Garos, it is said 
that the nokrong who is usually his sister's 
son comes to live in his house as the husband of 
one of his daughters and when he dies marries 
also his widow.* Polygamy was widely prevalent 
among the Uralis, among whom marriage is by 
exchange of sisters. Formerly, a Urali married 
as many women as he had sisters. The result is 
unequal distribution of women as wives between 
the males of the community, the old men having 
more than the young, who had to go without any. 
Now polygamy is practised by them to a limited 
extent. It is a sign of plenty. Only those who can 
afford it will go in for the luxury of having more 
than one wife. 

Polyandry 

According to Westermarck, polyandry depends 
a great deal on the proportion between male and 
female population, and polygamy where women 
constitute the majority in countries unaffected by 
European civilization. There are more men than 
women among the Malapulayas, the Malayarayans, 
the Uralis, and the Paliyans. It is said that, 
where food is abundant, females exceed males. 
Where food is scarce, males exceed females. This 
holds good among the above tribes, among whom 
there are more males than females owing to scarcity 
of food. 



* Hcdann, T. C , Census Ethnography, 1901-1931, p. 41. 



VOL. III.] MARRIAGE 101 

Polyandry is of two kinds, the matriarchal 
where the husbands are not related, and the fra- 
ternal, where they are brothers or cousins on the 
father's side. In the case of the former, the 
husbands are recognized as lovers and lose their 
privileges at the pleasure of the woman,, The 
matriarchal type is found among the Karavazhi 
Pulayas, the Plateau Muthuvans, and the Mannans. 
Fraternal polyandry merges into monogamy by the 
steady growth of the rights of the eldest brother. 
It now exists in a community where motherkin is 
the rule. This form of polyandry is due to poverty 
and the desire to avoid large families. It prevails 
to some extent among the Malayarayan, the Ullatan, 
the Paliyan, the Urfili, the Southern Pulayas, and 
the Parayas. Matccr observes that the Uralis 
practised polyandry like the Todas. It is now 
becoming extinct. Polyandry may be traced to 
various causes. It may serve to check the increase 
of population in regions where the number of mouths 
remain adapted to the number of acres. It keeps 
family property intact where the husbands are 
brothers. Poverty and paucity of women may be 
a combined cause of polyandry. 

Levirate and Sororate 

The custom of marrying the deceased brother's 
wife is called levirate. The corresponding custom 
of marriage of deceased wife's sister is called 
sororate. The two customs are found complemen- 
tary among the Uralis, the Ullatans, and the 
Mannans, while levirate is only practised by the 



102 THE ABORIGINES OF TRAVANCORE [Voi>. III. 

Malayarayans and the Kanikkar. The Malavetans 
practise neither levirate nor sororate. Dr. Fr after 
thinks that the two customs are traceable to a 
common source in the form of group marriage. 
Westermarck does not concur with this view. 

Widow Marriage 

Widow marriage is permitted among the primi- 
tive tribes of Travancore. Where widow marriage is 
allowed, the general rule is that thie deceased 
husband's brother takes her as his wife. This is 
true of the Kanikkar , the Muthuvans, the Mannans, 
and the Ullatans. Marriage with the elder brother 
of the deceased husband is found to exist among 
the Malapulayas and the Malayarayans. 

Pre-puberty Coition 

Pre-puberty coition after marriage is permitted 
among the Vishavans, the Kanikkar, and the 
Chingannivetans. Early coition is believed to be 
detrimental to health and fecundity. It will weaken 
the reproductive functions and cause abortion. 
This is probably one of the causes of the prevalence 
of abortion among the Kanikkar. 

Marriage Ceremonies 

Besides the usual exchange of clothes and tying 
of tali (marriage badge), the commonest of mar- 
riage ceremonies is eating and drinking together. 
The Karavazhi Pulaya bride-groom and bride sit 
facing east on a mat. Food is served on a leaf in 



VOL. III.] MARRIAGE 103 

front. The bridegroom gives a ball of rice to the 
bride. She in turn gives one to him which he eats. 
Among the Malapantarams of Pathanapuram, the 
bride's father joins the right hand of the bride to 
the left hand of the bridegroom, and says,'* I hand 
over my daughter to you. Take care of her." The 
couple are seated on a mat when four balls of rice 
are brought in a leaf by the bridegroom's sister. 
The bride hands over two balls of rice to the bride- 
groom who eats them. He then gives two balls 
of rice to his wife which she eats. This mutual 
inoculation by food is the strongest of all ties and 
breaks the most important of sexual taboos, that 
against eating together. Each gives to the other 
part of himself and receives from the other a 
part of him. This effects union by assimilating 
the one to the other, so as to produce somewhat 
of identity of substance. When the act is done, its 
sacramental character is intensified.* Again, the 
rudimentary ceremonies like joining of hands pub- 
licly have, according to Malinowski, some inherent 
force and an importance as sanctions. It is a 
ceremonial pre-representation of the actual union 
in marriage, assisting the union by making it safe 
and making it previously, and, as it were objectively, f 

Among the Kanikkar of Kottur, there is a slight 
variation of this custom. One of the modes of 
mutual contact is the pressing together of the heads 
of the pair. The couple are seated on a mat, and 
rice and curry are served on plantain leaf. Then 



* Crawley, The Mystic Rose, pp. 348-350. 
t Do Do. Do. 



104 THE ABORIGINES OF TKAVANCORE [VoL. III. 



two women take hold of the bride's head and press 
it seven times against her husband's shoulders. 
This over, the bridegroom takes a small quantity 
of rice and curry and puts it seven times into 
the mouth of his wife. 

Among the Malayarayans, the couple are seated 
on a mat after the usual exchange of cloths and tying 
of tali. The bride's brother then gives her a betel 
leaf which she tears into two. She then changes 
hand and is then asked to give one half to her lover. 
She then chews one half. They are asked to spit 
in the same spittoon. The chewing of betel consti- 
tutes the essence of marriage. The couple then 
cat off the same leaf. Among the Jena Kurubas 
of Coorg there is the exchange of betel leaves and 
nuts which concludes the nuptials. The chewing 
of betel leaves by the couple constitutes the essence 
of marriage among the Minihasas of Celebes and 
the Balans. 

The Muthuvans have another interesting cus- 
tom. Marriage takes place in the evening in the 
bride's hut, when the parents of the girl cannot 
be spectators of the ceremony. The bridegroom 
presents among other things a comb of golden 
bamboo to the bride which forms the essential part 
of the ceremony. It is always worn by a woman 
above the knotted hair on the back. This custom 
also prevails among the Mannans. The wearing 
of the comb has a wide geographical distribution. 
It is found among the Kadars of the Cochin State, 



VOL. III.] MARRIAGE 105 



the Australians, the Semangs of the Malay Penin- 
sula, the Sakais of Perak, and the Oraons of Chota- 
Nag'pur. It is a remarkable phenomenon that the 
distribution of the comb follows the distribution of 
the bamboo. 

Adultery 

The chastity of a woman is highly valued. Any 
breach of chastity used to be very severely punish- 
ed. Among the Kanikkar of Kulathupuzha, it used 
to be the custom that, if a man committed adultery, 
his legs were tied up to a branch of a tree. Straw 
was spread over the ground and it was smoked. 
The man's body was swung to and fro and he was 
given 24 lashes. The woman was given 121 lashes. 
The Kaiiikkar of Kottur tie up 101 twigs of tamarind 
tree into one, and the adulterer is given one lash 
with it. It is considered equivalent to 101 lashes. 

The Malapulayas tie up both the guilty man 
and woman to a Mullu-Murukku tree (Erythrina 
stricta) which is called Vambumaram. The hands 
are tied to the tree with fibre. Both are given 12 
lashes with a twig of tamarind. If a Paliyan 
committed incest the offence was heard by the 
Village Council. The culprit was formerly punished 
by being kept in stocks for a day. This is now 
given up. Punishment now takes the form of a fine. 
The culprits among the Malavetans are beaten and 
are fined 10 fanams each. The offence is shared 
by the panchayat of 16 men who restore the woman 
to her husband. Speaking generally, adultery is 



106 THE ABORIGINES OF TBAVANCOBB [ VoL III. 



looked upon with abhorrence. Divorce is freely 
had by man or woman for trivial reasons like 
iiNiompatability of temper, sterility and others. 

Influence of Civilization on Sexual Chastity 

Contact with higher culture has proved perni- 
cious to the morality of primitive peoples. Irregu- 
lar connection between the sexes has, on the whole, 
exhibited a tendency to increase with the progress 
of civilization, for it would seem according to 
Heape, highly probable that the productive power of 
man has increased with civilization. The Mannans, 
the Paliyans, and the Malapulayas have become 
demoralized by contact with the planting community. 




Thantapulaya puberty ceremony. 



CHAPTER VIH 

TABOO 
Introductory 

Taboos, according to Freud, are ancient pro- 
hibitions which at one time were forced upon a 
generation of primitive people from without. These 
prohibitions concerned actions for which there exis- 
ted a strong desire. This view is not shared by 
Crawley, as it appears to be improbable ethnolo- 
gically as it does physiologically.* Taboo forms the 
basis of society among the primitive peoples of 
Travaiicore. It exists among them in all its pris- 
tine strength and forms a good example of the re- 
ligious character of early society. The primitive 
conception of danger, so characteristic of early ri- 
tual, appears in two forms, the predication of evil 
influences and the imposition of taboos. These ap- 
pear with greater force with persons at their sexual 
crisis, that is, at puberty, during menstrual periods, 
pregnancy, and after chil^-birth. All contacts are 
regarded as contagious. The avoidance of contact 
is the most prominent feature attached to cases of 
taboo, when its dangerous character is obvious. 
In fact, the connotation of 'not to be touched' is 
the salient feature of taboo all over the world. 

Puberty Cu&toms 

At puberty, it is a wide-spread custom that 
neither sex may see the other. "With the appro- 
ach of puberty, the sexual question appears, which 



Eruoat Grawley, The Mystic Rose, p. 77. 



108 THE ABORIGINES OF TRAVANCORE [VoL. III. 



emphasises the separation, both natural and taboo, 
and, at the ceremonies of initiation, boys are 
formally taken away from the mother's sphere and 
female associations. The danger now enhanced by 
a new instinct produces the very common custom 
that from this time boys may not sleep even in 
the house or with the family. A common form of 
this custom is the institution of public buildings 
which combine the features of a dormitory and a 
club for the use of young men, so that they may 
not see nor may have any association with females. "* 
Such dormitories exist among the Muthuvans and 
the Maniians, as contact with women is dangerous, 
causing weakness and effeminacy. 

"The motive for the restraints so commonly 
imposed on girls at puberty is the deeply engrained 
dread which primitive man entertains of menstrual 
blood. He fears it at all times, but especially on its 
first appearance ; hence the restrictions under which 
women lie at their first mensturation are usually 
more stringent than those which they observe at 
any subsequent recurrence of the mysterious flow."f 
The maiden at puberty must not see males nor be 
seen by them, nor have any association with them, 
first for their own safety, because it is the male 
sex in the abstract which causes her trouble and 
danger, because contagion from them is dangerous, 
secondly for the safety of the men who by contagion 
of her accentuated femininity would be injured. It 
is the dangerous results of the association with the 

* Eruost Crawly, Th Mystic Rose, p. 185. 
t Fraser, The Golden Hough, p. 60 *" 



VOL. III.] TABOO 109 

other sex that are guarded against. To obviate this 
danger, a girl at puberty is lodged in a seclusion- 
shed about 100 yards from the main hut for 16 
days among the Malapantarams. The period varies 
from three days among the Muthuvans to four days 
among the Mannans, and the Malavetans, seven 
days among the Malayarayaiis, the Vishavans, and 
Malaiikuravans, fourteen days among the Mala- 
pulayas, and 15 days among the Paliyans. The 
seclusion-shed is about 50 feet from the hut among 
the Vishavans, and the distance varies to about 
100 yards among the Malapantarams. 

The Vishavan girl at puberty bathes twice a 
day unseen by men and then alone is served with 
food. Elephants and wild animals may damage the 
crops, .if this injunction is broken. The Muthuvan 
girl at puberty remains beyond the gaze of the men 
in the seclusion-shed for three days. During day 
time a Paliyaii woman keeps indoors and avoids 
the sun. She moves freely at night. On the six- 
teenth day she bathes and returns home with a 
pan of water on her head. She cooks rice in this 
pan, which is served to all the women of the hamlet. 
She is then free from pollution. A Mannan girl 
at puberty remains in the seclusion-shed for four 
days. On the fifth day she bathes, and a new cloth 
is presented to her. She again remains in seclusion 
for four days at home, so that there may be no 
harm to anybody. 

Among the Uralis, when a girl attains puberty, 
she is lodged in a remote tree-house reserved for 
the purpose for seven to twelve days, until the 



110 THE ABOBIGINES OF TKAVANCORB [VoL. III. 



menstrual discharge ceases. If it ceases after 
seven days, she bathes on the eight day. She then 
moves oh to a second tree-house in the vicinity, 
and remains there in seclusion for two days. On 
the third day, she bathes and returns home when 
seven jack leaf spoons of liquid cowdung and oil 
are poured over her head by her uncle and brother 
in front of the hut. According to Crawley, an 
analogous custom is said to prevail among the 
Veddas of Travancore,* but I cannot find any 
corroboration of this view. 

The Thantapulaya girl at puberty remains in 
the seclusion-shed for fourteen days, when she 
has to cook her food in a new earthenware vessel. 
She bathes on the fifteenth day before sunrise when 
she is made to sit facing east. A medicine-man 
stands on each side and sings. The girl gets 
possessed and swings her head backwards and 
forwards to a tune beaten on a bell-metal vessel. 
The girl faints after some time. She is then given 
tender cocoanut water, and recovers. Pollution 
then ceases. Among the Chmgannivetans pollution 
lasts for nine days. Ten pots of water are poured 
over the head of the girl by the aunt both morning 
and evening. On the tenth day, the girl bathes 
in a stream and wears a new cloth. She is then 
taken home, when liquid cowdung is sprinkled over 
the hut and compound. The girl makes a mark 
of cowdung on the forehead of all those present, 
and presents each with a bowl of gruel. Pollution 



* Ernest Crawl oy, The Mystic Kotte, p. 53. 



VOL. III.] TABOO 111 

then ceases. When a Paraya girl in North Tra- 
vancore attains puberty she is lodged in a seclusion- 
shed for twelve days. During this period she 
remains indoors. If a man sees her, she is said 
to become bloodless and emaciated in appearance. 
If she sees a man, he is said to get black spots on 
his face. She bathes on the thirteenth day and 
breaks a cocoanut. Pollution then ceases and she 
returns home. A few women are feasted. 

Menstruation 

According to Pliny, the touch of a menstruous 
woman turned wine into vinegar, blighted crops, 
killed seedlings, blasted gardens, brought down the 
fruit from the tree The object of seclu- 
ding women at menstruation is to neutralise the 
dangerous influences which are supposed to emanate 
from them at such times.* 

The Malapantarams regard women in menstru- 
ation as being in a mysterious religious state which 
necessitates the imposition of restriction and safe- 
guards. A woman in menstruation remains in a 
seclusion-shed for seven days. It is about a hun- 
dred yards from the hut. Women alone keep com- 
pany. During this period the husband is forbidden 
to ascend a hill or climb a tree for gathering honey. 
He should keep indoors and should not handle any 
implements. Woe befalls him, if he acts differently. 
The mode of removing contagion is purification by 
bathing at the end of the period of pollution. It 
is said that, when Kattayan's brother was going 

- Bough, P-606~~~ '" 



112 THE ABORIGINES OF TRAVANCORE [VoL.. III. 



with his uncle and three others among whom there 
was a woman in menses, she was snatched away 
by a tiger near Achencoil. 

The separation of the sexes is most prominent 
among the Uralis of the High Ranges. A woman 
during monthly periods remains secluded in a tree- 
house remote from their habitations until discharge 
ceases. The husband cannot approach the tree- 
house, but sends her provisions. When discharge 
ceases, she bathes and goes to a second tree-house 
in the vicinity. She remains there for two days. 
On the third day she bathes and goes home. 

The separation of the sexes during menstru- 
ation is a characteristic feature of all the hill-tribes 
of Travancore. To the primitive man, menstruous 
women are dangerous. "The obvious vehicle is 
contagion of blood. To exclude them from the 
world so that the dreaded danger shall neither 
reach them nor spread from them is the object of 
the taboos which they have to observe. These 
taboos act as electrical insulators to preserve the 
spiritual force with which these persons are charged 
from suffering or inflicting harm by contact with 
the outer world."* 

Child-Birth 

Among the primitive people, the phenomena of 
birth and disease partake of the mysterious and 
supernatural, and our ancestors sought to protect 
themselves from the operation of such contagious 
forces by a system of isolation and taboo, f Since 

* Frazer, The Golden Bough, p. 22B. 

f Ralph D'3 Pom ;rai. Marriage, Past, Present and Future, p. 36. 



VOL. III.] TABOO 113 

pregnancy and child-birth sometimes cost a woman 
her life and involve a certain amount of weakness 
and suffering, they seek to protect themselves from 
that contagion. Like the Bribri Indians, the Mala- 
pantarams regard the pollution of child-birth as 
much more dangerous than that of menstruation. 
When a woman feels that the time is approaching, 
she informs her husband who makes haste to put 
up a shed for her in a lonely spot about two or three 
hundred yards away from the hut. Pollution lasts 
for sixteen days. During this period, her husband 
cannot do any work. He keeps indoors. He can- 
not go out for hunting or gathering honey. Chi- 
dambaram tells me that, when once his father's 
brother went out to procure food after his wife's 
delivery, he was attacked by a bear which bit him 
on his 1 loin and hand. One Narayanan climbed a 
tree for gathering honey, but he fell down and 
collapsed. 

At child-birth a woman is taboo among the 
Uralis. When a woman is about to become a mother 
she goes to the tree-house remote from the habi- 
tation. She is not even assisted by women in 
delivery. They give assistance at a distance. 
Even after delivery, women do not approach her 
and render any help. Pollution lasts for twenty- 
one days. During this period, the husband re- 
frains from doing any work. She bathes on the 
twenty second day and goes home. The separation 
of the sexes is prominent during child-birth among 
the tribes, and a woman is lodged in a seclusion- 
shed. 



114 THE ABORIGINES OF TRAVANCORE [VoL. III. 

When a Par ay a woman is about to become a 
mother, she is confined to a seclusion-shed for 
sixteen days. During this period, the husband 
lives on toddy and beaten rice. The Western 
Pulaya also lives on toddy and beaten rice for ten 
days and must take no other food. It is said that 
when a Nayadi woman is attended by female re- 
lations for delivery, her husband massages his 
own abdomen and prays to the mountain gods for 
the safe delivery of his wife. He offers his thanks 
to them as soon as the child is born. This custom 
is not observed in Travancorc. 

One of the reasons why the actual birth of a child 
and menstruation are considered dangerous is that 
blood is regarded as the life force, it being held 
that the soul or spirit is in the blood, and as it is 
believed that, "because of her fertility, a woman 
is more highly charged with this mystical force than 
a man, the slighest contact with feminine blood 
is regarded with utmost horror/'* During men- 
struation and child-birth, women actually suffer 
from physical sickness. Hence man will dread 
being infected with these disabilities. 

It may be observed that the main line of 
development of ritual is from insulation of evil 
influences to the conciliation of beneficent powers. 
The dangers feared are insulated during the pro- 
cess of the function as is the natural course, then 
at the end of the function, the expulsion of the 
danger is performed for the last time, and is of a 
purificatory character. The practice of performing 

Mlalph On PomiMrai, Marriage, Past, PrcHent and Future, j, 37. 



VOL. III.] TABOO 115 

the chief ceremony at the end of a functional crisis 
is more sure of continuance, because the danger 
is then usually over, and the ceremony cannot be 
easily discredited. 

Relation of Taboo to Agriculture 

The sway of customs looks more powerful 
among people in the earlier stages of culture. The 
Ullataiis lead a pure life during the period of early 
agricultural operations from December to April. 
Since they remain in the domain of Sasta and other 
hill-deities, they abstain from all sexual intercourse. 
It is said that a man who touched his wife in 
menses, and went to hoe up the soil, lost his eyes. 
It is also said that the shadow of such a man falling 
on a crop in the field will not only blight the crop 
but also be detrimental to life. Similarly, a woman 
should not enter the paddy fields after new moon in 
Karkadagom. Women are not allowed to touch 
the crop lest their touch should blight it. The 
Malayarayaus also abstain from sexual intercourse 
from November to January. If a woman in menses 
goes near the work spot, the yield during the year 
will be poor. She has to observe seclusion for 
seven days. The Vettuvaiis lead a pure life in 
March, August, and September, as any action to the 
contrary will imperil their crops. Among the 
Uralis, a man does not mate with his wife for three 
days after jungle-clearing is started. Should a 
man approach a woman before cessation of menses, 
the crops are blighted and disease does great harm 
to the village. A Malapant&ram avoids sexual 
intercourse the night previous to his going out a 



116 THE ABORIGINES OF TKAVANCORE [VoL. HI. 



hunting. The idea seems to be that, while contact 
with women transmits female weekness, the reten- 
tion of the secretion in which strength is supp6sed 
to reside assures vigour and strength. It is feared 
that some mishap will arise if this injunction is 
broken. 

The religion of primitive man contains many 
instances of taboo. The Malapantarams, the most 
backward of the hill-tribes, take a bath in a stream, 
if polluted, and then alone go into the jungle. If 
they fail to bathe they incur the wrath of the gods 
who punish them with sickness. The idea seems 
to be that "a man who has been on a journey may 
have contracted some magic evil from the strangers 
with whom he has associated. Hence, on returning 
home, before he is admitted into the society of his 
tribe and friends, he has to undergo certain puri- 
ficatory ceremonies."* Women are excluded from 
religious worship and festivals among the Mala- 
pulayas, and the Paliyaiis, as they are considered 
impure. Among the Malapulayas a man refrains 
from sexual intercourse with his wife for ten days 
prior to any ceremony performed in honour of 
any deity . Similarly, as the Malayarayan, the 
Ullatan, and the Malavetan have to move in the 
domain of Sasta and other hill-deities, they refrain 
from sexual intercourse from January to April. 
" Man's superstitious fears are found to be in the 
exact ratio of his ignorance. " His whole world 
swarms with evil beings. Unless propitiated, they 
endanger the produce of his labours in the field. 

* Fraxcr, The Gl<ku Bough, p 197. 



VOL. III.] TABOO 117 



Danger is supposed to inhere in the strange and 
unknown. Every thicket, every watering place, 
and all rocky places abound with evil spirits. Man 
needs to walk warily in these circumstances, and 
he seeks to protect himself by the observance of 
prohibitions and by making offerings to the spirits. 



CHAPTER IX 

INHEUITANCE AND SOCIAL. ORGANIZATION 
Importance of Survival 

Dr. Tylor postulates that the study of the 
principles of survival has 110 small practical import- 
ance and that insignificant as multitudes of facts 
of survival are in themselves, their study is 
effective for tracing the course of historical deve- 
lopment through which alone it is possible to 
understand their meaning. Following the lead of 
Dr. Tylor, the British School of anthropologists 
attach great importance to survivals of mother- 
right as a means of tracing the development of 
human institutions, and the accumulation of a large 
store of facts has led them to conceive that 
mother-right represents the original state of human 
society, and that where existing societies are 
patriarchal, their mother-right has been preceded 
by an earlier institution on a niatriliiieal basis. 
Travancore affords a veritable mine of information, 
as polyandry of the matriarchal and fraternal type 
has been prevalent among the Proto-Australoid 
and Dravidiaii peoples with its accompanying form 
of inheritance, the mother- right. It may be said 
in parenthesis that father-right has been silently 
replacing mother-right with the impact of fresh 
culture among the primitive tribes. 

The importance of survivals does not receive 
much attention 011 the continent of Europe, while 
they are ignored by the American anthropologists. 
When maternal descent was first trotted by 
Bachofen, such a usage implied the former sove- 



VOL. III.] INHERITANCE 119 



reignty of the female sex. According to Lowie, 
this belief is now gracing the refuse heaps of 
anthropological science; and the belief in the uni- 
versality of mother-right, which has been an article 
or faith with British scholars, has been seriously 
questioned except by Morgan, who believed that 
Bother-right has priority to father-right. - Tylor 
relied on such survivals of custom as levirate and 
couvade for conceiving the idea of universality of 
mother-right. These data are not, according to 
Lowie, sufficient to warrant the above view. He 
thinks that mother-sibs and father-sibs have grown 
out of sibless organization. Leo Frobcnius ob- 
serves, "that there was a time when in certain parts 
of the world patriarchal and matriarchal institutions 
existed separately and were in their own terri- 
tory . the decisive, determining, and motivating 
cultural factors. At one time the two extensive 
regions comprising the interior of Asia and the 
interior of Africa (including Eastern Europe) 
must have been patriarchal; that is to say, the vast 
steppe lands were patriarchal. The Mediterranean 
Country and those of southern Asia lying between 
the two expanses, that is to say, their coasts, were 
at the same time under matriarchal sway. Patri- 
archy, in its least modified form, is still prevalent 
among the Africans of the Steppes."* 

The hypothesis now accepted by the anthro- 
pologists is that, among the earliest savages who 
lived by hunting, the man took his wife to himself, 
and that the husband, wife, and children all wander- 
ed together forming a patriarchal family. 

** G Mint ICoystfrliug, The Book O f Marriage, Loo Frobenius, " Marri- 
ago and Matriarchy," p. 99, 



120 THE ABORIGINES OF TRAVA^CORE [VoL. III. 

There was no well-defined system of inheritance 
among them, as there was nothing to inherit, but the 
relationship that existed was patriarchal. My 
researches in Travancore tend to the same viepr. 
One section of the Malapantarams, who lead tm 
life of nomadic hunters, affords an example 01 
this earliest form of patriarchy. When the savage 
passed from the hunting to the agricultural stage, 
patriarchy developed into matriarchy. 

According to Westermarck, the ordinary custom 
of savages is that the dead man's property is 
inherited by his own children, if kinship is reckoned 
through the father, and by his sister's children, 
if kinship is through the female. The right to 
inherit a dead man's property was certainly co- 
extensive with the duty of performing his obse- 
quies and offering sacrifices to his spirit. It is 
interesting to observe that the nephew is the chief 
mourner among the Thantapulayas, and he observes 
pollution for 16 days. The wife and children do 
not observe any pollution. Inheritance is in the 
female line among them. It is the same among the 
Muthuvans and the Mannans among whom mother- 
right prevails. Among the Kanikkar the nephew 
washes the corpse above the waist, and below this 
region the son washes it. It is a mixture of matri- 
archy and patriarchy among them, as it is among 
the Malavetans and the Paliyans. Among the 
TJralis the nephew is the chief mourner even now, 
but the children of the dead man inherit the property, 
because they have been in joint possession of it. 
The nephew is the chief mourner among the 



VOL. III.] INHBIilTANCE 121 



NayadLs. He observes pollution f.or sixteen days, 
while the son and mother observe it for ten days. 
Sons now inherit the property. A similar change 
has come over the Eastern Pulayas. 

The evolution of family transformed the system 
if inheritance of property, but left that of dignity 
s ?ntouched. In every primitive community age is 
a source of reverence and influence. Considerations 
of fitness therefore made it desirable to entrust 
the management of common interests of the family 
to the eldest and most experienced member, and 
this has produced collateral inheritance by brothers. 
Among the Muthuvans a man's property goes to 
his elder or younger sister's son with the reservation 
that the property is first enjoyed by his younger 
brother before it passes to his nephew. Debts 
are inherited by the nephew as property is. The 
Maimaiis have the same type of inheritance. Out- 
side India, it prevails in Sumatra, where property 
aiid rank are enjoyed by brothers, before they pass 
to sister's children. 

Inheritance of Widow 

Tne inheritance of the widow of a deceased 
man is placed in the same category as property. 
The cliin of the mother to subsistence out of her 
husband's property makes her remain with her 
sons. These claims are, according to Starcke, 
connected with the customs that include her in her 
brother-in-law's inheritance. A Mannan marries 
th'e widow of his deceased brother. Among the 
Western Pulayas, it is said that before a man dies, 
he says', "CWalum Olakkayum Anantharavanu. ' ' 



122 THE ABORIGINES OF TKAVANCOBE [VOL.. HI. 



By this declaration, the nephew of the Pulaya in- 
herits the mortar and pestle, and the youngest 
wife of his uncle. He keeps his aunt as his wife. 
This custom has now died out. 

McLennan asserts that brother's inheritance 
both of widow and property occurs, where polyandr r 
has been previously practised, but other anthro- 
pologists, like Starcke and Westermarck, dissent 
from the view. They consider it irrational to seek 
for causes of connection between a widow and her 
brother-in-law in polyandry, and the exercise of 
marital right in a husband's life time would only 
become a necessary condition if carnal considera- 
tions formed the corner-stone in the development 
of the family. The life and habits of most of the 
primitive tribes of Travancore do not justify the 
conclusion, as their customs were not formed under 
the influence of considerations of enjoyment. 

"Man" says Humbolt, "ever connects on from 
what lies on hand." The notion of the continuity 
of customs and civilization embodied in this state- 
ment is no barren maxim. To begin with, men 
lived in families, inheritance being patrilineal. As 
they grew in size with the growth of tribal feuds, 
they lived in aggregations, producing patrilineal and 
m-atrilineal institutions. American anthropologists 
believe that father-right evolved without an inter- 
mediate stage of mother-right, and that matrilineal 
peoples imposed their rules on patrilineal peoples. 
Mother-right exists among some of the primitive 
tribes of Travancore, but its days are numbered 
owing to the impact of modern civilization. 



VOL. III.] INHERITANCE 123 

Social Organization 

.The rigidity of the village organization of the 
primitive tribes is due to their long isolation, their 
narrow outlook on life, and close inter-marriage for 
countless generations. They generally live in small 
groups of families called kudi (village). Each 
viilage is even now an independent unit, and consists 
of an average of ten to fifteen families bound to- 
gether by the idea of self -protection. 

Malapantaram 

The Malapantarams are in the hunting stage 
of civilization. Their low economic condition is 
reflected in their simple organization, which has 
little cohesion because it must be prepared to break 
up when its food supplies decrease even a little. 
The larger the extent of territory necessary for the 
supply for a given community, the looser the connec- 
tion between the land and people, and the lower 
the type of social organization. In Pathanapuram, 
where they are under more civilizing influences, 
they have a head-man called Muppan. 

Kdnikkdr 

The Kanikkar living in a village are knit 
together by social, religious, and political ties. 
The village is the unit in all matters, and there is 
no room for the play of individualistic tendencies. 
Villagers work jointly in clearing jungle, burning 
debris, and in all magico-religious ceremonies 
performed for securing a bountiful harvest. The 
headman (Muttukani) used to wield considerable 
power in the past and settle all their disputes. 



124 THE ABORIGINES OF TRAVANCORE [Voii. HI. 



Muthuvan 

The Muthuvans of Neriamangalam have Mel- 
Vaka as their chief. Kiliparambu forms his head- 
quarters. He has now nominal jurisdiction over 
the Muthuvans of Poopara and Anjanad. The^ 
jurisdiction of Mel-Vaka extends over a tract of 
land covered by Pothiduku in the north, the Cheriar 
in the south, and Anamudi in the east. Inferior in 
status to Mel-Vaka is Muthfikka. Porkukudi forms 
his headquarters. Both the Mel- Vaka and Muthakka 
belong to the same clan, Melakuttom, The members 
of the IftUikuttqm clan have their own Vaka, the 
Valath,raka and PaVtliraka who enjoy the same 
status among them as the Vaka of other Muthuvans. 
Wl;ien the village council meets to decide a case of 
adultery, all the Vakas meet. The Mel-Vaka has 
the most elevated sent. The Muthakka has Ids 
seat a little lower. Still lower are the scats for 
Valathraka and Palithrfika. If a fine of Rs. 2-8-0 
is inflicted, the Mel-Vaka gets Rs. 1-80 and Muthak- 
ka gets Re. 1-0-0. 

On the Cardamom Hills, each village has its 
own, headman. Their supreme lord is Mel-Vaka. 
Reference are made to Miippan, a dignitary lower 
in rank. If his decision is not satisfactory, the 
Mel-Vaka is appealed to, and his decision is final. 
Under the Mfippan comes the Talayari who exercises 
jurisdiction over a group of 2 or 3 villages. Then 
follow the Kularan, and the Sundarapandi who are 
equivalents of village chiefs. The office is here- 
ditary and descends to the nephew. 




Perumparayan. 



VOL. HL] INHERITANCE 125 



Manndn 

Among the Manuaiis, village affairs are regu- 
lated by a council of elders with a headman chosen 
by the villagers. Chieftainship is hereditary and 
descends to the nephew. The chief has a lieutenant 
called Rukslmsan, and under him there are Bother 
dignitaries, known as Valia-Elandari, Elandari, 
Tlmndakaran, and Thannipatta in the order of their 
rank. Mannans build huts, cultivate the land, 
harvest the crops, and store them in tree-houses 
for their headman. These privileges are shared 
by Bak&hasan and Valia-Elandari. 

Malayarayan 

The Malayarayans have a council of elders 
to look afer their common interests. Ponamban 
and Panikkan, having equal status, are the main 
limbs of the council. The office of Ponamban is 
conferred on a deserving member by the Poonjat 
chief, and is not hereditary. The office of Panikkan 
is hereditary, and descends from the father to the 
eldest son. The headman is responsible for the 
welfare of the people in his care. Each TJllatan 
hamlet has a chieftain called Kanikkaran. The 
office descends from father to son. 

UrdUs 

The Uralis have a headman called Kanikkaran 
for a group of hamlets. Each hamlet has a platlu 
or medicine-man who is responsible for the good 
conduct of the men therein. When disputes arise, 



126 THE ABOBIGINES OF TBAVANCOBB [VOL. III. 

the Plathi informs the Kanikkaran, who presides 
over the meeting of the village council and settles 
the dispute. No fine is inflicted on the delinquents. 

Paliyan 

The Paliyans have a Kanikkaran (headman) 
for each hamlet. He is assisted by a Valia Elandari^ 
a Veena-Mariya, and Thandakkaran. The first two' 
are in charge of unmarried boys and girls and are 
responsible for their good behaviour. The village 
council discusses and settles any dispute arising 
in the village. The Malankuravans have a village 
council presided over by a Urali (headman). The 
Malavetaus have a headman called Stani who settles 
all their disputes. The office is hereditary and 
descends from uncle to nephew (sister's son). The 
Pulayas and Thantapulayas were slaves of the soil 
till 1854, when they were emancipated. Even now, 
their condition lias not undergone any material im- 
provement. Their masters settle their disputes. 

Pulaya 

The Kanapulayas have a complete village orga- 
nization. Public affairs are regulated by an assem- 
bly of elders who decide caste disputes and punish 
delinquents. The Aikara Yajamanan is their reco- 
gnized leader. Subordinate to him are the Vallu- 
vans whose jurisdictions extend over particular 
villages or desoms. An assembly composed of 
these heads and chieftains sits in judgment 
on the erring Pulayas. In addition to these, the 
landlords under whom they serve as agricultural 
labourers exercise a good deal of influence in the 



VOL. III.] INHERITANCE 127 

settlement of caste disputes. The Valluvan is the 
headman and priest of the tribe. He prides himself 
on five privileges: 

1. the long umbrella, i. e., the umbrella 
with a long handle. 

2. the five coloured umbrella. * 

3. bracelets. 

4. long ear-rings. 

5. a box for keeping betel leaves. 

He is called Vallon or Valiyavan in the Cochin State. 
He is the supreme judge and law giver and is res- 
ponsible for the good behaviour of his people. His 
staff consists of a Kuruppan or Accountant who 
assists the Valluvan in the discharge of his duties, 
a Komarfittan or devil-dancer, a Kaikaran, a Vadi- 
kkaraii who brings the parties to a suit, keeps order, 
and inflicts punishment. The Komarattan exists 
only among the Kanapulayas. We have here a 
complete picture of village organization on a terri- 
torial basis as it existed in the past. It has almost 
vanished now. 

Par ay a 

The Parayas have a headman called Perum 
Parayan. He is the master of the ceremonies in 
times of adversity. He enquires into all caste dis- 
putes, and settles them. He has an assistant called 
Munnainan to help him in his work. 

Custom was a unifying factor among primitive 
peoples. But contact with people of the plains des- 
troyed the complex web of customs and institutions 



128 THE ABORIGINES OP TRAVANCORE [VOL. III. 



which made up tribal life. The control of the 
hill-tribes by the Forest Department has tended 
to the diminution of the influence and importance of 
the village chieftains, who are now mere shadows of 
their former selves. Frequent access to the people 
of the plains has weakened the taboos and their 
social solidarity. 



CHAPTER X 

THE DISPOSAL OF THE DEAD 
Introductory 

Burial and cremation are the two common 
methods of disposing of dead bodies. They are 
very ancient customs and there is evidence to show 
that both methods were practised in the Vedic period 
in India. The epithet, 'agnidagdha', according 
to Macdonell and Keith, applies to the dead who were 
burnt on a funeral pyre. They also refer to 
'paroptah* or * casting out' and 'uddhitha* or 
6 exposure of the dead 7 . They add that burial was 
not rare in the Rig- Vedic period. In the Vedic 
period both customs appear in a modified form. 
A stone is set up between the dead and the living 
to separate them.* 

Tamil works, such as Manimechalai, Tolkap- 
piam, and Poruladigaram written about the second 
century, A. D., refer to the following methods of 
disposing of the dead in Pre-Brahmanic period: 

1. Exposure in an open space to be eaten 
by Jackals. 

2. Cremation. 

3. Throwing the corpse into natural pits. 

4. Covering the corpse with big earthen 
jars. 

5. Burial.f 

* L). A. lao&ouzie Indian Myths and Legends Introduction 

pp. XXXII to XXXIII. 
f M. Srinivasa Iyeru:ar Tamil Studies, p. 39. 

S 



130 THE ABORIGINES OF TRAVANCORE [VOL. III. 

Most of the primitive people of Travancore 
bury the dead. Burial has for its object the 
prevention of the ghosts from tormenting the living. 
The devices intended to prevent the return of mali- 
gnant spirits are manifold. Among most of the 
tribes of Travancore, a stone is planted at the 
head and foot of the grave. 

Sometimes, a grave is enclosed with a fence too 
high for the ghost to cross particularly without 
a run. Such an enclosure has the additional advan- 
tage of marking the place as taboo. This is said 
to be the origin of the stone circles strewn on the 
High "Ranges of Travancore. Among all the tribes 
great care is taken over the toilet of the corpse. 
The dead body is washed and well dressed in new 
garments, for the dead must enter the spirit world 
in the best array. 

Malapantdram 

The Malapantarams adopt the simplest form 
of burial. The dead arc buried where they die. 
After burial, the tribe leaves the locality and will 
never return to it. The Muthuvans bury the dead 
about a mile from the hamlet. The grave is dug 
waist-deep for men and breast-deep for women, the 
reason being that men are brave and free from 
danger only if the corpse is buried deeper in the 
ground. The corpse is covered with a new cloth 
purchased by the son or sister's son, and after it 
is lowered in the grave, the chakmuk (fire-making 
apparatus) and the turban are placed by its side. 
The grave is covered with earth and a small stone 
is planted at the head and foot. A thatched shed 



VOL. III.] THE DISPOSAL OF THE DEAD 131 



is erected over it. Pollution lasts for 30 days. 
In Deviar Valley, the medicine-man imagines that 
the grave is the body of Surya (sun), and passes 
a whiff of air through the hollow of his hand. After 
the grave is covered with earth, he conceives it to 
be the skin of Surya, and passes another whiff of air 
through the hollow of his hand. He then imagines 
that the stone planted at the head is the head of 
the sun and passes another puff of air through the 
hollow of Ids hand. He then imagines that the 
stone planted at the foot is the big toe of the sun, 
and passes another puff of air. The idea is that 
the sun is guarding the dead, and that no wild 
animal will do any harm to the dead. If these 
ceremonies arc not performed, it is said that the 
tiger will taste the flesh of the dead and come and 
kill the people of the village. 

Orali 

The Uralis also bury the dead about a furlong 
away from the hut. The depth of the grave is about 
the same as a man's height for men, and woman's 
height for women. The chief mourner is the nephew 
who washes and dries the corpse. It is covered with 
a new cloth. A new cloth is also tied round the 
loins. It is then placed over a reed mat and tied 
with Kaivan fibre (Helicteres Isora) and carried 
to the grave. Billets of wood are placed in the 
pit cross-wise and over them a plaited bamboo is 
placed. The sides of the grave are also lined with 
bamboo. The corpse is then lowered into the grave 
and a plaited bamboo is placed above it. A com- 
plete coffin is thus formed. The chewing materials 



132 THE ABORIGINES OF TRAVABTCORE [VOL. III. 

and bill-book of the deceased are placed in the right 
arm pit of the deceased. Green leaves are then 
thrown into the grave and the pit is covered with 
earth. A stone is placed at the head and another 
at the feet, and one on each side. Each is about 
two feet long and one foot broad. The plaited 
bamboo is used only in the case of males. In the 
case of a woman dying after delivery in a tree-house, 
men dig the grave for deceased, but women carry 
the body to the grave and bury it. It is said that 
men will get ill and provoke the anger of the gods 
if they do it. 

Paliyan 

The Paliyans bury the dead about a mile from 
the hamlet. The grave is dug breast-deep for 
women and loin-deep for men. The corpse is placed 
in the grave on a reed mat and is covered by it. 
The grave is then filled with earth. The Vishavans 
adopt a simple form of burial. The grave is about 
a mile away from the hamlet and is dug in the east 
to west direction. The corpse is placed on a new 
mat, tied up, and carried to the grave suspended 
on a pole. The corpse is laid on its back in the 
grave, the head being at the western end and the 
feet at the eastern end of the grave, and the head 
is propped up so that the face looks eastwards. 
A bamboo mat is placed over the corpse and the 
pit is filled with earth. 

Malayarayan 

The Malayarayans of Central Travancore inter 
the dead about 20 to 40 yards to the south of the 




A Muthuvan temple- 



VOL. III.] THE DISPOSAL OF THE DEAD 133 

habitation. The eldest son and oldest nephew of 
the deceased go round the site selected for the burial 
three times, strewing rice and fried paddy. They 
then remove three shovels of earth from the site 
with their face turned away from it. The grave is 
then dug four feet deep. The grave diggers are 
not allowed to carry the corpse. Wrapt in a new 
cloth, the corpse is lowered into the grave. All 
the mourners then throw earth into the grave three 
times, standing with their back turned to the corpse, 
then wheel round and fill the grave with earth. 
Small pebbles are placed at the sides of the grave 
and a big stone is placed at the head and at the 
feet vertically. The Mannans too bury their dead. 
The corpse is wrapped in a new cloth purchased by 
the nephew, and carried to the burial ground on a 
bier. The grave is dug hip deep in the case of men 
and not so deep in the case of women. The corpse 
is lowered into the grave with the head turned 
towards the south. The grave is filled up with 
earth and a thatched shed is erected over it to 
protect it from rain. 

Ulldtan 

The Ullatans bury the dead. The deceased's 
brother-in-law digs the grave. Before the corpse 
is removed from the hut, the floor is swept and 
the sweepings are thrown on the bier to drive away 
the spirit of the dead. After burial, a stone is 
planted at the head of the corpse. The Malapulayas 
also bury the dead and plant a stone at the head, 
the breast, and the feet. 



134 THE ABORIGINES OF TRAVANCORE [VoL. III. 



Kanikkar 

The Kanikkar living on the northern side of 
the Kothayar bury the dead. Formerly, burial 
was done at a distance, but it is now done about 
50 yards from the hut. Burial is resorted to with 
a view to avoiding the terror felt by the living for 
the spirit of the dead and the fear that it may 
return to alarm the surviving fellow-tribesmen. 
The medicine-man gives holy ash to the grave- 
diggers before they go to dig the grave, and they 
put a mark on the forehead to ward off evil spirits. 
Otherwise they may be prevented from digging 
the grave. Meanwhile the nephew washes the corpse 
above the waist, and the son washes it below this 
region. Gaiija, betel, and tobacco are put^ into 
the mouth of the corpse to appease the soul of the 
departed. A mat is spread over the grave. The 
nephew and the son carry the corpse to the grave. 
It is taken round it three times and gently lowered 
into it. The grave is then filled up with earth by 
the son and the nephew. 

The wife plays an important part in the funeral 
ceremony among the Kanikkar of Kottur. She 
accompanies the corpse to the grave with a dishful 
of rice gruel, a spoon, and a sieve. As soon as the 
corpse is lowered into the grave and covered with 
earth, she comes forward and deposits the articles 
at the feet of the corpse. A thorn of Smilax Zeyla- 
nica is pinned to the grave one at each end and one 
in the middle. The thorn is intended to cow down the 
spirit of the dead. In the vicinity of Kulathupuzha 



VOL. III.] THE DISPOSAL OF THE DEAD 135 



three stones are planted, one at the head, one at the 
feet, and one in the middle. By the side of each stone 
is planted a thorn of Smilax Zeylanica. Some beaten 
rice, fruits, fried rice, pan chew, and water are laid 
by the grave near the feet for the spirit of the de- 
parted. Two feet away from the grave, the way is 
closed on their return by drawing three lines over 
which three pebbles are laid on each line.* Three 
ithorns are planted over another line to prevent other 
spirits from going to the grave and snatching away 
the spirit of the deceased. The above precautions 
coupled with chants are intended to suppress the 
vagrant tendencies of the dead. Early man thinks 
that it is the corpse that may come back and harm 
the survivors and that it should be kept down by 
physical moans. The Kaiiikkar to the south of the 
Kothayar cremate their dead. 

The Malavdtans bury the dead about a mile 
from their habitation. Before removing the corpse 
from the hut, the floor is swept and the sweepings 
and the broom arc placed on the bier to drive away 
the spirit of the deceased from the house. The 
son and the nephew are the chief mourners. After 
bathing, all the mourners make a mark on their 
foreheads with cowdung paste. The Thantapulayas 
used to bury the dead, but they have now begun to 
cremate them. The nephew is the chief mourner 
and he observes pollution for sixteen days. The 
wife and children observe no pollution. In case 
the nephew fails to perform the ceremony, the son 
performs it, but observes no pollution. 



136 THE ABOBIGINES OF TBAVANCOBE [VOL.. III. 



The Nayadis bury their dead. The nephew is 
the chief mourner. Pollution is for sixteen days 
for the nephew, and ten days for the son and mother. 
On the tenth day a quarter measure of rice is cooked, 
and three balls of rice are placed on a leaf over the 
feet of the dead at the burial ground. The nephew 
claps his hands thrice; crows then fly over the spot 
and eat the balls. The chief mourner then returns 
home after bathing, when a feast is given tc 
relations. 

Conclusion 

An examination of the funeral ceremonies of 
the tribes shows that perfect pandemonium centres 
round the corpse.* Great importance is attached 
to the proper disposal of the dead. The idea is 
that the dead would walk unless the body is dis- 
posed of with appropriate ceremony. If there is 
no propitiation, the restless spirit of the deceased 
will walk among them and bring sickness, want, and 
ravages of wild animals. The attention bestowed on 
them sprang not so much from affection as from 
the fears of the survivors. The dead are buried 
with all the paraphernalia which belonged to them 
in life. Everything belonging to the dead was put 
out of sight and buried with him, for it was 
feared that a. man's personality haunts over his 
possessions after death. All the tribes lead a pure 
life during the period of pollution, and refrain from 
sexual intercourse, ordinary work, and amusements. 



Faruell, Evolution of Religion p. 104 




ft) 

a 
6 



a 



VOL. III.] THE DISPOSAL OF THE DEAD 137 

According to Bendon, the universal attitude towards 
the corpse is mystical and supernatural, and to the 
relations of the dead, a separation from it is alarm- 
ing.* According to Thotwell, the potency of the 
mysterious is the fundamental historical basis of 
all religion.! 



* Bendon, E., Death Customs, p. 84. 

f Th>>tw3ll. The Religious Revolution of tlie Day, pp. Ill -112. 



CHAPTEE XI 

EBLIGION 
Definition of Religion 

Westermarck defines religion as "a belief in, 
and a respectful attitude towards, a supernatural 
being on whom man feels dependent, and to whr^se 
will he makes an appeal in his worship."* with 
primitive man, "religion is a part of his custom. 
It is his whole custom."! The religion of the 
primitive tribes of Travancore may be described 
as a system of animism or spiritism, and their 
attitude to the supernatural is one of reverential 
fear in the presence of certain mysterious super- 
natural powers and beings who must be propitiated 
or conciliated to avert ill-will. 

The theory of animism divides itself into 
two great dogmas forming parts of one consistent 
doctrine, first, concerning souls of individual crea- 
tures capable of continual existence after the death 
or destruction of the body; secondly, concerning 
other spirits upwards to the rank of deities.J 
Animism in its fullest development includes the 
belief in souls, in a future, and in controlling deities 
and subordinate spirits, these doctrines practically 
resulting in some kind of active worship. The 
concept of personality is fluid and vague. No 
images of spirits are made, and there are no temples. 

* Westermarck The Origin and pevelopmew of Moral ideas, 

Vol. II, P. 

t Marott Anthropology, p 213. 
t Risley The People of India,,p. 222. 



?v &"''! "*:> zllt' 

till f 1- ** 1 ^ . ! ,T( jLhjFjk, ,'* '-1 - * ' \ 



' 




VOL. III.] RELIGION 139 



As for the village deities, one or more groves consti- 
tute their shrine. Stones are employed as symbols 
of deities among the Malayarayans. 

The village priest is generally the headman who 
attends to the propitiation of village deities and 
spirits. The office is hereditary, the nephew succeed- 
ing to it. While it is the headman who officiates as 
priest among most of the tribes, there is a plathi or 
medicine-man among the Kanikkar and the Uralis 
who cures all ailments and practises the black art. 
Propitiation is congregational and is intended to 
restore man's confidence, when shaken by crises. 
Harmonius relations are maintained by supplica- 
tions, prayers, offerings and sacrifices. The com- 
munity as a whole, represented by the village elders, 
constitute the priesthood for the propitiations of 
the deities and spirits, although the headman con- 
ducts the rites. The elders are the recognised 
custodians of tribal traditions and customs. The 
ideal of their life is to live on friendly terms with 
the gods and spirits, to possess sufficient lands, 
crops, and cattle, to be free from debt, and to have 
enough to eat and live. 

The hill-tribes of Travancore have a hierarchy 
of deities and spirits: 

1. The Sun. 

2. The Ancestor Spirits. 

3. Village deities and Spirits. 

4. Hunting deities. 

5. Tramp spirits. 



140: THE ABORIGINES OF TRAVANCORE [ VOL. III. 



The Sim 

The worship of the sun is confined to the 
Muthuvans, the Uralis, and the Kanikkar. Every 
Muthuvan worships it in the early morning daily 
by raising his hand to his face. It is probable that 
the worship of the sun may have at one time formed 
a prominent part of their religion. The Uralis 
recognize the sun as the creator of the universe and 
the father of all souls. The Kanikkar call the 
sun Bhagavan of all and reckon it as a female. 
Early at sunrise, they x>lace in front of their huts 
a lighted lamp, fruits, beaten and fried rice. They 
then pray: "Oh Gods, pray accept our offerings." 
They then partake of the offerings. 

Ancestor Spirits 

Ancestor-worship is one of the great branches 
of the religion of mankind. In India, it comes to 
the surface in all directions, and its principles keep 
up the social relations of the living world. Accord- 
ing to Tylor, the dead ancestor, now passed as deity, 
goes on protecting his family and receiving suit 
from them as of old. Ancestors are therefore con- 
sidered as kindly patron spirits, at least to their 
own kinsfolk and worshippers. 

Ancestor-worship is prevalent among most of 
the primitive tribes of Travancore. Among the 
Malayarayans of Central Travancore appear wide 
and deep trace's of a surviving cult of ancestors. 
In the region of the Malayarayans, "there are many 
ancient tumuli in these hills, evidently graves of 



VOL. III.] RELIGION 141 

chiefs, showing just the same fragments of pottery, 
brass-figures, iron weapons as are found in other 
similar places. These tumuli are often surrounded 
with long splintered pieces of granite from 8 to 12 
or 15 feet in length set on end with sacrificial aitars 
and other remains, evidently centuries old. Numer- 
ous vaults called Pandukuri are seen in all their 
hills. They stand north to south, the circular open- 
, ing being to the south ; a round stone is fitted to the 
aperture with another acting as a long lever to 
prevent its falling out ; the sides, as also the stones 
at the top and bottom, are single slabs. To this 
day, the Arayans make similar little cells of pieces 
of vstone, the whole forming a box a few inches 
square ; and on the death of a member of a family, 
the spirit is supposed to pass, as the body is being 
buried, into a brass or silver image, which is shut 
in this vault: if the parties are poor, an oblong stone 
suffices. A few offerings of milk, rice, toddy, and 
ghee are made. A torch is lighted and extinguished, 
the figure placed inside the cell, and the covering 
stone hastily placed on; then all leave. On the 
anniversary day, similar offerings are made, the 
stone is lifted off and again hastily closed. No one 
ventures to touch the cells at any other time.* The 
Malayarayans of the present day do not erect 
dolmens over the dead. Ancestor-worship is now 
confined to persons who are killed by a tiger or wild 
elephant, or who meet with an unnatural death. A 
metallic effigy continues to be made in the case of 



Matcer, Native Life in Travancore, pp. 7475. 



142 THE ABORIGINES OF TBAVANCOBE [VoL. III. 



unnatural deaths. A small box of stone is made of 
verticals and capstone opened in front on ceremonial 
days. 

Among the Kanikkar, ancestor-spirits are 
legion. Sangaii Perumal Muthan, Nllambi Muthan, 
Muthala Muthan, and Echa Muthan and others 
make up 101 spirits of ancestors. When a man is 
terrified by wild animals like bears or wild elephants, 
he at once comes back and solicits the aid of the 
medicine-man, who takes some small pebbles and 
places five stones in a row in honour of Gariapathi. 
He then holds some pebbles in his right hand and 
drops them in pairs into his left hand to ascertain 
whether Echa Muthan is responsible for the incident. 
If an even number remains in the right hand, the 
same process is repeated to ascertain whether Puli- 
ehavu is responsible. In this manner is found 'out 
the true spirit responsible for the incident. These 
spirits are propitiated by offerings to Pulichavu, 
Anachavu, and Pambuchavu to intercede on behalf 
of the terrified man and save his children. 

The Muthuvans make offerings to ancestors in 
January. A pongal is offered by the side of clothes, 
beads, rings, and bangles. Clothes are to propitiate 
male ancestors, and bangles and beads, female an- 
cestors. The prayer is to the effect, " Oh parents, 
grandparents, and great grand parents, protect us. 
We shall propitiate you every year." Among the 
Vishavans, intoxicants and stimulants are objects of 
veneration, besides cooked and fried rice. The 
deification of drink is due to its exhilarating and 




^_^ 



VOL. III.] BELIGION 143 

invigorating effects. The dead still receive worship 
from the larger half of mankind. Spencer and 
Grant think that the worship of the dead is at the 
root of every religion. The spirits of the dead 
are worshipped, because they are capable of influ- 
encing the welfare of the living, in a mystei'ious 
manner. 

Village Deities and Spirits 

Men distinguish two classes of phenomena, 
natural and supernatural, between the phenomena 
they are familiar with, and in consequence ascribe 
to natural causes, and the other phenomena which 
seem to them unfamiliar, mysterious, and there- 
fore supposed to spring from causes of a super- 
natural character. We meet with this distinction 
at the lower stages of culture known to us as well 
as higher stages. Mystery is the essential charac- 
teristic of super-natural beings. 

The worship of the spirits of particular local 
hills or other awe-inspiring natural objects falls 
under this category. The existence of an in-dwell- 
ing spirit, is dimly recognized, and in others, an 
immanent power of mysterious energy of the nature 
of mana is believed to exist. The worship of this 
class of supernatural powers is said to stand bet- 
ween religion and magic. The Malay ar ay ans wor- 
ship four eminences, Thalaparamala, Azhamala, Pu- 
thiamala, and Savamparamala. They do not sepa- 
rate the spirit from the matter, but adore the thing 
in its totality as a divine being. The Ullatans also 



144 THE ABOKIGINES OF TRAVANCOBE [VOL. III. 



make an annual offering to Thalaparamala, TJdum- 
paramala, and Chakkiparamala. The offering con- 
sists of fruits, beaten rice, milk, sugar, and molasses, 
and is made on the hills. They believe that it is due 
to the help that they receive from them, that they are 
able to live in the jungle without molestation. The 
Malapantarams dread the jungle deities. If a man 
gets polluted, he bathes and then alone, goes into 
the jungle. Those at Thalapara worship crests 
of hills, Kotangi, Vettamala, Kottamala, and Mu- 
thanmala. They make a respectful bow when they 
pass by them and say, "Oh Hill, save us from 
mishaps." The Muthuvans, the Paliyans, and the 
Mai ankur avans make offerings to eminences. We 
find a replica of this custom in all parts of the world. 
Among the American Indians, Dorman points out 
that remarkable features in natural scenery or 
dangerous places become objects of superstitious 
regard and veneration, because they are supposed 
to be the abode of gods. A high mountain or an 
isolated peak is looked upon with superstitious 
respect and propitiated with offerings. 

Among the Sambavars of South Travancore 
it is to the village deity that the whole body of 
villagers turn for help, when pestilence, famine, 
or cattle disease make their appearance. The main 
function of the village deity is the guardianship of 
the village. The leading principle is the worship 
of the female principle in nature. All over South 
India the village deities are mostly female, but some 
of them have male attendants who are supposed to 
guard the shrine and carry out the commands of 




Madan. 



VOL. III.] BELIGION 145 



their goddesses. The chief miiistrants are drawn 
from the villagers. They were formerly worshipped 
with animal sacrifices. There is no ecclesiastical 
calendar regulating the forms of worship of village 
deities or festivals. Where there is a shrine in a 
hamlet, offerings of rice, fruits, and flowers are 
made by villagers. In many places, offerings are 
more usual after harvest. Sacrifices are made 
whenever there is an epidemic. 

Hunting Spirits 

When a party of Muthuvans return with the 
spoils of the chase, the carcase is suspended over 
fire for the removal of hair. In the case of black- 
monkey, its liver, hands, and feet are cut into slices 
separately. They are then pierced by five thin 
stakes, and roasted by being suspended over fire, 
after which they are placed over a leaf. The follow- 
ing prayer is then offered: 'Must as my parents, 
grandparents, and their ancestors went in quest 
of food and lived by the spoils of the game, I wish 
the same luck for myself. If I am blessed, I shall 
offer you a share of the spoils before they are 
tasted by anybody else." The slices are then dis- 
tributed among those present. The remaining 
portion is then divided equally among all the village 
folk. The Kanikkar also propitiate the hunting 
spirits, Sankaramalla Muthan, Pulichavu, Patanaya 
Muthan, before they go out hunting. When an 
animal is killed, the skin is first peeled off. The 
heart and lungs are cut into slices, roasted in the 
fire, and then placed on leaves. They then pray 



146 THE ABORIGINES OF TBAVANCORE [VoL. III. 



as follows: "When we go into the jungle, pray 
let us have game easily. If you do not kill and give 
them to us, we will conclude that there are 110 
Mutharis." The slices are then eaten by those 
who are present. The remaining flesh is divided 
equally among all the village folk. An analagous 
custom is found among the Ullatans of Travancore 
;;nd the Oraons of Chota Nagpur. 

Tramp Spirits 

Tramp spirits include mischievous spirits of 
persons who died an unnatural death. Pandara- 
chavu, Arutalichavu, Nayfit Aruvala, and Murthi 
are some of the tramp spirits of the Ullatans. An 
offering of fried rice, flesh of Sambar, fowl, arrack, 
and toddy is made in front of the yard of a person 
obsessed by such a spirit. The priest goes into 
a trance and holds the tuft of the afflicted person, 
who also goes into a trance. The priest exclaims, 
"I shall leave this person." All then partake of 
the offerings. 

Among the Malayarayans, a metal effigy is 
made of a person who has met an unnatural death. 
A small box of stone is made of verticals and a 
cap-stone. The metal image is placed inside it. 
It is worshipped on Sankramam days in Vrischigam 
and Medam annually. 

Startling events are ascribed to the activity 
not only of visible but of invisible supernatural 
agents ; sudden or strange diseases are at the lower 
stages of culture commonly supposed to be occa- 
sioned by a supernatural being, which has taken 




A Kanikkar paddy flat at Nedumangad. 




Terraced cultivation of the Muthuvan in Anjanad. 



VOL. ill.] RELIGION 147 



up its abode in the sick person's body or otherwise 
sent the disease. The Muthuvans are worshippers 
of malevolent deities like Karuppu, Mariamma, 
and Kali, whose business it is to bring drought, 
disease, and death. They are propitiated to protect 
the people from smallpox. The priest may be a 
woman at times. 

Influence of Hinduism 

Hinduism may be defined as animism more or 
less transformed by philosophy, or to condense the 
definition, as magic tempered by metaphysics. 
According to Lyall, Hinduism may be roughly des- 
cribed as the religion of all the people who accept 
the Brahmanic Scriptures.* The Muthuvans show 
signs of Hinduism in their religion. They worship 
god Subramania. In each village is a thatched shed 
put up away from the habitations. Inside is a 
bamboo thatty, over which are placed a cane and a 
bundle of peacock's feather. These arc emblematic 
of god Subramania, who is also known as Palani- 
aiiclavar. The Malayarayans, the Mannaiis, and the 
Kanikkar have modified their animistic practices in 
the direction of orthodox Hinduism. It is a very 
interesting fact that all the hill-tribes worship Sasta, 
whose worship betrays many features of animistic 
practices. 

On their march to Sabarimala, votaries of 
Sasta offer fried rice and molasses to the crags 
on the bed of the Peruthode stream, which are 

* Rialey The People of India p. 283 



148 THE ABORIGINES OF TBAVANCOBE [VOL. HX 

supposed to be the resting places of Sasta and his 
followers. Another custom refers to the worship 
of all stones on the way from Kottapadi to Sabari- 
mala. The natural object is worshipped, because 
it is believed to possess supernatural power, but 
it is never the less the object itself that is wor- 
shipped. In other words, they do not separate the 
spirit from the matter, but adore the thing in its 
totality as a divine being. 

On reaching the Azhutha river, the votaries 
camp there for the night. The river is worshipped as 
a deity, which fills their imagination and receives 
their homage. At Kallidamkunnu, all the Kanni 
Ayyappaiis throw a pebble on the crest of the hill. 
This is intended to press down the personality of an 
Asura who haunts the hills so that he may not come 
out and do harm to them. The animist who endows 
an inanimate object with a soul regards the visible 
thing itself as its body. He finds it easier to wor- 
ship a material thing* which may be seen than a 
hidden God, however perfect its shape. 

According to Robert Briffault, the function of 
primitive religion is much more direct, concrete, 
and practical. Its purpose is not to interpret life, 
but to obtain those things which are reckoned 
needful to its existence. 




A Malapantaram climbing a tree for gathering honey. 



CHAPTER XII 
OCCUPATION AND CLASH OF CULTURE 

It has been said that social and Religious 
progress has spread or is spreading from the sea 
inland and not in the reverse direction. This is 
true of the primitive tribes of Travancore. Along 
high way communications, the Kanikkar are under 
more civilizing influences and have adopted a stabler 
mode of cultivation in the vicinity of Kulathupuzha. 
In less accessible areas in Neduvangad and Vilavan- 
code, they are less open to foreign influences and 
more tenacious of their old ways. They are here 
nomadic agriculturists and their whole energy is 
consumed in an ever increasing struggle for bare 
existence. In the uplands, cultivation is migratory. 
In the 4owlands, it is permanent. On the hills, 
rice is grown on the dry system. The coincidence 
of the dry system with migratory cultivation is not 
accidental. This method of cultivation occupies 
the greater part of their time and leaves hardly any 
time for the satisfaction of their other needs. The 
Vishavans, the Muthuvans, the Mannans, the tJralis, 
the Paliyans, and the Malayarayans are nomadic 
agriculturists. 

The Malapantarams alone are in the hunting 
stage of civilization. Their simple and monotonous 
savage economy permits of no concentration of 
population. The smaller the number, the easier is 



150 THE ABORIGINES OF TRAVANCOBB [VOL. III. 



the food assured. Primitive man at the outset had 
no tools, and his hand was the first tool. Gradually, 
with his hand he learned to make a number of tools to 
increase his food supply. It is said that the earliest 
groups were very small. Since most of the food 
secured was seized and eaten on the spot, it might 
be supposed that food gathering was an individual 
enterprise. Professor Karl Bucher calls this first 
stage in human economy, "the individual searcti 
for food." The Malapantarams may be said to be 
on the borderland of this stage. A very effective 
bar to progress was caused by the migratory cha- 
racter of the hunting community which depended 
on the seasonal movements or scarcity of game. 
Their habitations were of a flimsy and temporary 
character, the social organization was loose, and 
the use of the bow and arrow was found among 
most of the tribes. 

Migratory Agriculture 

vXhe migratory habits of the jungle tribes still 
continue among the Muthuvans, the Mannans, the 
Vishavaiis, the Uralis, the Paliyans, and the Kanik- 
kar.^)Thc Malayarayans and the Ullatans have 
fixed habitations known as hamlets consisting of 
a few flimsy huts. The first mentioned tribes(are 
compelled to change their hamlets owing to the 
exhaustion of the soil/){For further advance, it is 
necessary to learn how to gather abundant sub- 
sistance from a given habitat so as to make per- 
manent villages possible. This necessitated some 
improvement in tools.) It is said that the digging 



VOL. III.] OCCUPATION AND CLASH OF CTJLTTJEE 151 



stick is the beginning of agricultural implements, 
the progenitor of the hoe, the spade, and the plough. 
The digging stick is still used by the Malapaii- 
tarams, the Vishavans, and the Malavetans. 

Terraced Cultivation 

(, 

The Muthuvans have also terraced cultivation 
in the Anjanad Valley. Ward and Conner speak 
of " numberless little glades, some adapted to rice 
cultivation, scattered along the hilly table that 
overlooks the valley, whose inhabitants are never 
tempted to settle within this space."* Semple 
states that a mountain environment often occasions 
a forced develoment in the form of agriculture 
among people who otherwise still linger on the 
outskirts of civilization. This is true of the Muthu- 
vans who have been in the Anjanad valley from 
the second century A. D. 

The Thantapulayas, Malavetans, the Malan- 
kuravaiis, arid the Malapulayas live by the sweat 
of their brows. Most of the tribes evoke the ad- 
miration of the people of the plains by the manner 
in which they climb trees and collect honey. They 
also collect minor forest produce and give them to 
the contractor who supplies them with rice and other 
articles of food. They also take part in the cap- 
ture of elephants on the hills. 



* Ward and Conner Memoirs of tho Survey of the Travuncoro 
and Cochin States p. 159- 



152 THE ABORIGINES OF THAVANOOBE [VOL. TTT. 



Effect of Clash of Culture 

The preliterate people of Travancore are found 
in the recesses of the hills. In spite of their re- 
ceding into the interior forest, they have been 
brought into contact with the people of higher cul- 
ture, firstly on account of improvement of com- 
munications and modes of travelling, secondly 
through the influence of markets, and thirdly through 
the work of missionaries. Sanitation is badly want- 
ing in the hamlets of the hill-tribes. Some of them 
bury their dead about a hundred yards from their 
huts. The wearing of clothes is said to be the worst 
of all the evil customs introduced by civilization. 
It has created among them a flesh consciousness and 
the virtues of concealment, the two sign-posts of 
civilization. They purchase second hand clothes on 
the hills and wear them without change until they 
rot to pieces. The education that is imparted to 
them undermines superstition and causes th|eir 
disorganization. It tends to produce idlers and 
non-producers, and thereby causes economic waste. 

One of the causes of deterioration is said to be 
the advent of modern implements and methods. 
The improved implements have enabled them to 
save manual labour in their avocations. The Kanik- 
kar, the Muthuvans, and others, who have been 
using a wooden hoe for hoeing the soil and the 
digging spud for digging up wild tubers and roots, 
have taken to the use of the axe, the pick-axe and 
the mammatty. 




P&raya industry. 



VOL. III.] OCCUPATION AND CLASH OF CULTURE 153 



The Kanikkar and the Mutlmvans who were 
formerly adepts at the use of the bow have now 
become the proud possessors of fire-arms. Changes 
have also come about in their food. Coffee is being 
drunk by the Mutlmvans, the Mannans, and the 
Kanikkar, while tea is indispensable to the Uralis. 
Changed ways of life and thought have led to the 
unsettling of the mind of primitive man, and he 
1ms bartered away his heritage and retreated to 
more inhospitable lands to procure fanciful articles. 
This has changed his former mode of life and 
deprived him of all incentive for work. 

Custom was the unifying factor among the pri- 
mitive peoples. Contact with the people of the 
plains has destroyed the complex web of customs 
and institutions which, made up tribal life, and 
in this process of disintegration, the weaker went 
to the wall. The control of the hill-tribes by the 
Forest Department tended to the diminution of the 
influence and importance of the village chieftains 
who are only mere shadows of their former selves, 
and tills has endangered the maintenance of dis- 
cipline. Frequent access to the people of the plains 
has undermined their clan system and lessened the 
regard and respect the people had for their head- 
man. The Bachelors' Hall, which used to be a 
bulwark against malpractices is now dwindling in 
importance. The custom is still enforced among 
the Mutlmvans , but it is undergoing a slow process 
of silent decay among other tribes. The habit 
of toddy and arrack drinking among the Kanikkar, 
the Muthuvaiis, and the Mannans, of opium eating 



154 THE ABOBIGIBTES OF TBAVANCOBB [VOL. III. 



among the Vishavans, and of ganja smoking among 
the Paliyans is becoming a serious problem. The 
improvement of communications has brought them 
into contact with the dregs of low country men with 
the result that their morals are badly affected. 
Lethal diseases like leprosy, syphilis, and others 
are now found among them. They have lost in 
bodily vigour and are fast dwindling in number. 
They have now a low fecundity and fertility. Lot 
us proceed to examine the cause of this further. 

Population Problem in Travancore 

It has been said that the population of Kerala 
grows in defiance of the laws of nature, and that 
u married woman in Travancore will have on an 
average 7 children born to her during the child 
bearing period of 1545 years.* A study of the 
figures among the primitive tribes unfolds a dif- 
ferent tale. 



*N- Kunjan Filial The Travancore Census Report, 1931-Pari I, 
p. 38. 



VOL. III.] OCCUPATION AND CLASH OF CULTURE 155 



fa 






.8 



CQ -rji 



,1 5, 



"3 72 

g4d 






g 




156 THE ABOBIGINES Ol? TKAVANCORE [VOL. III. 

It will be seen that the average survival rate of 
children is 1-6 among the Kanikkar of Pechipara, 
1 -5 among the Malavetan, 1 4 among the Ullatans, 
and 1 -7 among the Malayarayans of Manimala. 
Owing to improved climatic conditions, the size of 
the family increases to 3-0 among the Kanikkar 
of Kulatlmpuzha, 2-8 among the Malayarayan of 
Thodupuzlm, 3-8 among the Mannans of Periyar, 
3 -8 among the Malapantarams. In fact, the average" 
survival-rate goes just over two among the other 
tribes. Compared with the other castes of the 
State, the fertility of the primitive tribes is low. 

The human species has excessive fecundity, but 
it is always to the female we look for an increase 
or* decrease in species, for the male has prolific 
fertilizing power. The reproductive power of the 
female is governed by several factors. We may 
first consider the fecund cycle. Evidence from 
studies of primitive peoples indicates that primitive 
man has but one reproductive period during the 
year. This is said to be due to the precarious 
nature of his food-supply. In Travaiicore, the 
Malapantarams are a small tribe in the hunting 
stage of civilization. They live on such wild, edible 
roots and fruits as come in their way. They are 
reduced to semi-starvation at times. At Achencoil, 
they are found to have an average survival rate 
of 3-8 which does not betoken that they have only 
one reproductive period in the year. Conditions 
no doubt change when man takes to agriculture and 
domesticating animals. His present perennial sex 



VOL. III.] OCCUPATION AND CLASH OF CULTURE 157 



life is a concomitant of his emancipation on vege- 
tation, wild fruit, and game. The Muthuvans, the 
Urali, the Maunan, the Paliyan, the Pulaya, and 
others have a higher average survival rate, while 
the Kanikkar of Pechipara, the Malavetan, and 
the Malayarayaii of Manimala have a lower survival 
rate owing to adverse influence of environment. 

The length of fecund life is another factor to 
be reckoned in this connection. The fecund life 
for females is from 15 to 45, and for males from 
puberty to old age. The age at which menstruation 
occurs appears to be influenced by climate, race, 
and culture.. According to Eiigelman, the average 
age of menstruation is 12-9 years in the tropics. 
My enquiry shows that it is about 14 years among 
the primitive tribes of Travancore. Menstruation 
begins later and ends earlier among the tribes. 

It is said that a surplusage of adult females 
over males is a necessary condition of stabilization 
and continued vigour of the human races.* The 
table given below represents the present state of 
affairs among the primitive tribes: 



* Pitt Rivers- Tho Clash of Culture and contact of Races p. 268. 



158 



THE ABOBIGINES OP TBAVANCOBE [VOL. IIL 



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c> co cr> "^00,01 co i- ^ co 01 co^ 



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VOL. III.] OCCUPATION AND CLASH OF CULTURE 159 



The Muthuvan, the Urali, the Vishavan, the 
Malapulaya, the Tlmntapulaya, and the Ullatan 
have a higher sex-ratio according to the Census of 
1931, while the Kaiiikkar, the Malayarayan, the 
Malavetan, the Maiinan, the Paliyan, the Malapan- 
taram, and the Pulaya have a lower sex-ratio. 

A surplusage of adult females alone ensures 
the general monandry of the reproductive females, 
and is an indication for the preservation of the race. 
The absence of a high sex-ratio among the latter is 
a sign of degeneration. 

It is however pointed out that the primitive 
tribes have a higher sex-ratio than the Marumak- 
kathayis, and the latter a higher ratio than the 
Makkathayis.* Among the primitive tribes, the 
Kuravan is the only tribe having a population of 
considerable numbers, and they have an excess of 
females over males. The numbers of the other 
tribes are too few to justify a general inference 
being drawn on the sex-ratio. However, the ten- 
dency of the tribes, as is seen from the average 
ratio, is for the females to outnumber the males. 
The sex-ratio of the important tribes is given 
below : 

1.. UUatans .. 1284 

2. Kuravans . . 1074 

3. Thantapulayas . . 1060 

4. Muthuvan .. 1005 

5. Vetans . . 983 

6. Malayarayan .. 974 

7. Mannan .. 919 

8. Kanikkaran ..889 

* Kunjan Pillai, N. The TraYancore Censu a Report, 1931. Vol. I 
Part 1- p 132. 



160 THE ABORIGINES OF TRAVANCOBE [VOL. III. 



Havelock Ellis opines that the sexual impulse 
in savages is weaker in the intensity and frequency 
of its manifestations. "It may be that the small- 
ness of the reproductive organs is due to the lack 
of sexual organs of sexual excitement, and this in 
turn may be the cause of so mueh sterility. Carr- 
Saunders thinks that it is not unreasonable to 
assume a connection between lesser development of 
the reproductive organs and a lower degree of 
fecundity.' 5 The Kanikkar of Pechipara, the Ulla- 
tans, inside the reserve forests, the Malayarayaiis, 
and the Malavetans exhibit low fecundity. Some 
writers think that females arc responsible for this, 
while others attribute it to the males. Popenoe 
accounts for sterility being due to spermatoxins, 
lack of healthy, well-ordered and unsatisfactory 
marital habits.* 

Lastly, Dr. Rivers speaks of the enormous 
influence of mind on body arising out of despair 
among lowly people, and says that it is the basic 
cause of depopulation. By destruction of interest 
in life, the hill-tribes are cut off from their old 
moorings and they become mal-adapted, a circum- 
stance which leads to eventual extinction. Changed 
conditions of life can be measured in human de- 
crease among the Kanikkar. Where there have 
been fewer changes (the Muthuvans and the Uralis), 
there the race survives. It is generally observed 
that sexual desire and vigour tend remarkably to 
be inhibited by anxiety, depression or the influence 
of any strong emotional distraction. Ellis says 



* Duncan, II. GK Race and Population Problems p. 265. 



VOL. III.] OCCUPATION AND CLASH OF CULTURE 161 



that desire and pleasure are very important aids 
to pre-disposing causes of fertility. Any distur- 
bance in this direction is likely to affect women more 
profoundly, for a disturbance in the sexual sphere 
of women is more potent hi its influence on the 
whole organism than in man. Primitive man loses 
heart, when once his customs are tampered with 
and when he. is likely to be absorbed, this despair 
serves to aid the physical causes of depopulation. 
The fecundity and fertility of the tribes are being 
reduced by the operation of the various causes 
mentioned above. According to Robert R. Kuezyn- 
ski, "if a woman has two children, the population 
will sooner or later decrease.''* Judged by this 
criterion, all the primitive tribes of Travancore, 
barring the Muthuvaiis, the Mannans, the Paliyans, 
and the Malapantarams are declining. 

Remedies of Depopulation 

It is said that the provision of new interests 
is the antedote against racial despair, but the 
future must be built on the past. Old institutions 
and ancient traditions must be maintained as far 
as possible. Most of the primitive tribes still 
continue to be nomadic agriculturists driven to 
more uncongenial lands, which yield hardly enough 
to run their home for the whole year. Their 
economic level is still very low. A large number 
of them have not the means to secure the needed 
clothing. They are perpetually in debt to low 
country men which they are seldom able to dis- 
charge. "They are the prey of many kinds of 



Kobert R. Kuezynski-The Balance of Births and Deaths p. 1. 



162 THE ABORIGINES OF TBAVANCOBE [VOL. III. 



sharks who take advantage of their ignorance." 
The Government of Travancore have framed a set 
of rules for the treatment and management of the 
hill tribes. If their welfare is to be safe-guarded, 
the rules now in force require revision. We must 
build on the tribal past through the agency of the 
tribes themselves. The attempt to aid and foster 
them should be the concern of the Government, 
and should not be delegated to other agencies. The 
rules have therefore to be modified on the lines 
evolved by Mac Gregor elsewhere.* 

1. The areas in reserves should be divided in 
small blocks and assigned to individuals separately, 
conferring on them the ownership thereof. 

2. Each hill-man to whom land is given should 
pay a fixed rental to Government. 

3. Village councils should be constituted for 
each settlement. 

As nomadic agriculture is still the mainstay 
of the tribes, improvidence and laziness intensify 
their indebtedness. "Poverty and hunger give a 
definite felt want. A felt want a keen feeling 
of need is the best basis for securing and hold- 
ing interest, "f It seems therefore desirable that 
adequate credit facilities should be created, so that 
the people may stand on their own legs. Credit 

* The attention of the reader is invited to Page 239. 011 '"the 
Primitive Tribes of Travancore " by L. A. Krishna Iyer and 
N. Kuujan Pillay Vol. I, India, Part III, Ethnographical 
B Ethnographic Notes by various Authors by Dr. J. H Hutton, 

t D. Spenoer Hatch Up From Poverty p. 99. 



VOL. III.] OCCUPATION AND CLASH OF CULTTJKE 163 

societies, should be organized for the purppse of 
improving the material condition of the tribes. 
Well regulated markets create in the minds of sellers 
and purchasers a feeling of confidence in each other. 
It would be a great boon to the tribes if proper 
arrangements could be made for marketing their 
produce, so ttyat they might obtain proper value for 
their articles. 

Much damage has been caused to primitive 
peoples by reformers who are ignorant of their life 
and customs. A knowledge of Anthropology will be 
a useful handmaid to social reformers and adminis- 
trators. The province of Assam is said to be the 
only instance of a provincial administration carried 
on in the best interests of the primitive population, 
and this has been possible by the anthropological 
knowledge and foresight possessed by its talented 
administrators Dr. Hutton and Mr. Mills. Assam 
serves as a model to other provincial administra- 
tions and Indian States for treatment of backward 
races. It behoves them to consider the feasibility 
of having a trained anthropologist in charge of 
primitive areas. The economic cycle of the pri- 
mitive area could be observed and economic develop- 
ment fostered and guided in keeping with the cycle. 
The tribes could be protected from unscrupulous 
money lenders and landlords by special legislation. 
The material and moral well-being can thus be 
fostered in harmony with their tribal past. ' ' Every 
people, every tribe, however little advanced in its 
stage of development, represents a psychic type or 



164 THE ABORIGINES OF TBAVANCOEE [VOL. III. 

pattern. The interests of humanity require that 
every type should be assisted and educated to its 
adquate expression and development. No race lives 
to itself and no race dies to itself. We must lead 
the backward ones to a full utilization of the oppor- 
tunities of their environment and a development of 
their distinctive natural characteristics.' 7 * 



* Radhakrishnan, S-, The Hindu View of Life, pp. 95 96. 



INDEX 



PAGE 



PAGJS 



A 




Bhagavata Purana 


30 






Biasutti 


32 


Adiehan Arayan 


22 


Birhor 


68 


Adichanallur 


48 


Blache, Vidal DC 


7 


Adipandi Pandyan 


23 


Blondness 


12 


Adultery 


105 


Blood -gjou ping 


44 


Affinities, Racial 


31 


Blow -tube 


74 


Agastya 


29 


Bodinaickanur 


25 


Agriculture, Taboo 


115 


Borlase 


52 


Alcoholism 


69 


Bourdillon 


48 


Altitude 


6 


Bow 


73 


Ambalapuzha 


85 


Briffault 


., 94, 98, 


Ananthakrishna Iyer, 






148 


L. K- ;.. 


38 


Bruoo Footo 


58 


Ancestor. worship 




Burial 




Malayarayan 


140 


MalapantSraro 


133 


Kanikkar 


142 


Muthuvan 


130 


Muthuvati 


142 


Urali 


131 


Vishavan 


142 


Paliyan 


132 


Andamanese 


42 


Malayarayau 


132 


Animism 


138 


Thantapulayari 


135 


Anjanad 


50 


Ullatan 


133 


Anthropometry 


7 


Kanikkar 


134 


Arenga Wightii 


68 


Malavetan 


135 


Arutalichavu 


146 


Nayadi 


136 


Aryan 


8 


Burma 


57 


Assam 


59 


Bushmen 


45 


Attingal 


22 






Australian 


31,44 






Avebury 


71 


C 




Ayyappancoil 


26 






Azhamala 


143 


Calvorton 


93 


Azhutha 


148 


Cardamom Hills 


25 






Carr Saunders 


... 21,160 


B 




Cary^ta urens 


70 






Caucasian 


15 


Bachelor-hall 


72 


Chakkiparamala 


143 


Bachofen 


93 ; 119 


Chanda, R. P. 


30 


Ball, Vincent 


60 


Chautiyat Amma 


26 


Bamboo 


71,74 


Chavadi 


72 


Bayana 


62 


Chembikunnu 


71 


Beddoe 


8 


Ohenchus 


71 


Bendon 


137 


Cheriyar 


124 



166 



THE ABOBIGINBS OF TBAVANCOBB [VOL. 111. 





PA<JB 




PAOE 


Child-birth 


112 


Evans, Mrs, 


69 


Malapant&ram 


113 


Exogamy 


76 


Paraya 


114 






Pnlaya 


114 


F 




Urali 


113 






Chokkanad 


26 


Farnell 


136 


Ohokkanadar 


26 


Fertility 


156 


Cipriani 


9 


Fergusson 


53 


Classificatory System... 


91 


Finot 


13 


Climate 


5 


Flint and Steel-Fire- 




Coffee 


69 


making 


69 


Coition, Pre-puberty ... 


102 


Kanikkar 


70" 


Comb 


104 


Muthuvan 


... 


Cooper 


58 


Mannan 


... ... 


Coulanges, M. Fustel 




Malayarayan 


... 


Do ... 


80 


Vishavan 


... ... 


Cousin Marriage 


97 


Flower 


8 


Crawley 


93, 107 


Fr-od -quest 


67 


Cremation 


135 


Foulkes 


74 


Crooke, Sir William ... 


68, 94 


Fowler, Sir William 


11 


Cultivation, terraced ... 


151 


France 


63 


Cumbummettu 


26 


Frazer 


... 76, 90, 


Curcuma Augustifolia... 


68 




111, 112, 








. 116 


D 




Freud 


107 






Furniture 


72 


Darwin 


94 






Dasyus 


19 


G 




Davenport 


15 






Digging stick 


73 


Gait, Sir Edward 


94 


Distribution of Primi- 




Garos 


... 71, 100 


tive Tribes ... 


2 


Gates, Ruggles 


15, 45 


Dolichocephaly 


17 


Gmd 


57, 96 


Dolmen 


51 


Gondid 


37 


Dormitory 


71 


Gopinatha Bao 


52 


Dorsey, G. A. 


99 


Gopura Mannan 


26 


Dravidian 


8,31 


Grant 


142 


Dubriei 


52 


Grewia tiliaef olia 


69 


Duncan, H. G- 


15,17 


Guha 


...9, 10, 13, 








47,63 


B 












H 




Eickstedt 


8,68 






Elandari 


125 


Habitations 


70 


Elliot Smith 


6 


Haddon 


8 


Enthoven 


10 


Hair 


13 


Enviornment Influence 




Hand-drill 


68 


of ... 


5 


Harappa 


46 


Eaquioio 


96 Hatch, Spencer 


162 



VOL. III.] 



INDEX 



167 





PAGE 




PAGE 


Havelock Ellis 


160 


Kothayar 


24 


Highland 


1 


Kottur 


103 


Hill Male 


44 


Kudakad 


81 


Hinduism 


10 


Kuezynaki, Hubert 


161 


Hodsun, T. C. 


100 


Kularan 


124 


Holland 


8 


Kunjan Pillai, N. 


154 


Humbolt 


m 


Kuruba 


34 


Hunting Deities 


145 


Ku rum bar 


29, 60 


Button, J. H. 


...9, 13, 41, 


Kuruppan 


127 




62, 73, 163 










L 




I 












Lapicqe 


47 


Indonesia 


... 59, 61 


Latte 


46 


Inheritance 


118 


Levirate 


101 


Property 


120 


Leo Jfrobenms 


119 


Widow 


121 


Lowie 


119 


Irula 


68 


Lowlands 


1 


Isoiopes Articulata 


66 


Lusheis 


72 






Lyall 


147 


K 












H 




Kabul Nagas 


59 






Kadir 


... 14, 32, 


Macdonell 


... 5J,I29 




41, 44, 67 


Macf a r lane 


9 


Kadukutti 


53 


Me LCD Ha u 


... 80, 89, 


Kaikkaran 


127 




122 


Kalakad 


... 21,23 


Madura 


26 


Kali 


147 


Maine, Sir Henry 


... 11,80 


Kailar 


66 


Major Munn 


60 


Kallidakurichi 


22 


Malankuravan 


2, 87 


Kallidanikunnu 


148 


Malapantaram 


...2, 41, 65, 


Kanikkar 


...2, 44, 45, 




67, 76 




69, 77, 




103, 120 




103 


Malapulaya 


... 2, 105 


Kan'kkaran 


125 


Malaria 


7 


Kanui Ayyappan 


148 


Malav@tan 


...2,43,65, 


Karimpandi 


23 




87 


Kattukallar 


28 


Malay arayan 


...2,48, 81, 


Karl Buoher 


150 




104 


Keane, A.H. 


71 


Ma lid 


37 


Keith, Sir Arthur 


... 15, 62 


MalinowBki 


103 


Keyserling, Count 


93 


Mankutti 


78 


Kheriyas 


68 


Mannan 


... 2,.48, 84, 


Kill para mbu 


... 81, 184 




121 


K'aiuala Reserve 


71 


Mannankandam 


84 


Komar&than 


127 


Maori 


45 



168 



THE ABOBIGINES OF TEAVANCOEE [VOL. HE. 





PAGE i 


PAGB 


Marett, R. K. 


138 Narada 


69 


Mariamma 


147 Nasal Index 


19 


Marriage 


48 


Nattukallar 


28 


Capture 


95 Nayat Aruvala 


146 


Service 


96 Nayadi 


...3,70,121 


Purchase ... 


96 Nediltu 


27 


Exchange 


97 Negrito 


42 


Marriage Ceremonies 


102 


Neriamaugaiam 


26 


Marutuamala 


29 


Newbingen 


63 


Matcer 


54, 69, 


Nishadas 


30 




101,141 






Mathutti Pillai 


22 


O 




Matriarchy 


119 






Mattupatti 


55 


Occupation 


149 


Meenakshi 


26 


Olakarivu 


29 


Megalithic Monuments-.. 


51 


Oraon 


57 


Mel-Vaka 


124 






Menhir 


58 


P 




Menstruation 








Malapantarani 


111 


Padraanabha Menon, 




fjrali 


112 


K.P 


65 


Midland 


1 


Palaniandavar 


147 


Mid-Pandy Pandian ... 


23 


Paliyan 


2 


Mills, J. P. 


163 


Palni Hills 


74 


Missionaries 


152 


Palithrakka 


124 


Mitra, Panchanan 


33 


Pambanar 


54 


Mohenja Daro 


42 


Pambu Pulaya 


68 


Mongolian 


8 


Pandarachavu 


146 


Monogamy 


98 


Panikkan 


125 


Montelius 


6J 


Paniyan 


44 


Montesque 


69 


Para y a 


3 


Morgan, Jaques De 


119 


Pellet-bow 


74 


Mothiramala 


78 


Periyar 


156 


Mundas 


57 


Porry, W. J. 


.. 48,58 


Muppali 


75 


Perumparayan 


127 


Muppan 


123 


Peru nthal para 


54 


Murthi 


146 


Petric Fliiiders 


61 


Mutilations 


66 


Pile-dwelling 


71 


Muttukani 


123 


Pituatary gland 


15 


Muthakka 


124 


Plathi 


126 


Muthuvan 


2,48,81, 


Pliny 


111 




104 


Polygamy 


99 






Polyandry 


100 


N 




Pomerai, Ralphe De 


.. 92,112, 








114 


Naga 


72 


Ponamban 


125 


Nagamiah, V. 


M, 64 


Poonjat 


26 


Nara 


73 


Poopara 


85 



in.] 



INDEX 



169 



Popenoe 


FAUJfi 

160 


Saunders 


L AQK 

57 


Population 


3 


Savaruparamala 


143 


Do. Problems 


154 


Sayce ^ 


12 


Porkukndi 


124 


Sample 


13, 15, 


Porojas 


72 




151 


Pothidukku 


124 


Sergi 


32 


Pre-Dravidian 


32 


Sewell 


42 


Preuss 


38 


Sex -ratio .s. 


159 


Proto-Australoid 


42 


Sithangan Arayan 


22 


Puberty 


107 


Skin, Colour of 


12 


Malapautaram 


109 


Sin i lax Zcylanica 


135 


Vishavan 


109 


Social organization 




Paliyan 


109 


Ma la pan ta rani 


123 


Maunan 


109 


Kanikkar 


123 


Uralis 


109 


Muthuvan 


124 


Thantapulaya 


110 


Mannan 


125 


Chingannivetan 


110 


Malayarayan ... 


125 


Paraya 


111 


Uralis 


125 


Pulaya 


...3,47,88, 


Paliyan 


126 




99 


Pulaya 


126 


Pulichavu 


145 


Paraya 


127 


Puthiyaruala 


,... 143 


Sor orate 


101 






Spencer 


94, 143 


Q 




Srinivasa lyengar, M.... 


129 






Stani 


126 


Quatrofage 


18 


Starohe 


121 






Stature 


14 


R 




Subramauia 


147 






Subrawmia Iyer, N. ... 


26 


Raja Mannan 


27 


Sundarapandi 


124 


Rakshasan 


125 


Sun-worship 


140 


Rangachari, V. 


51 






Religion 


138 


T 




Rhodesian skull 


42 






Rig-Veda 


... 19,52 


Taboo 


107 


ttisley, Sir Herbert 


...7,31,138 


Talayari 


124 


Rivers 


... 58, 165 


Tattooing 


66 


Roy 


58 


Taylor, Medows 


53 


Rugger! 


61 


Taylor Griffith 


15,41 


Russel 


80 


Thala Pandi Pandyan- 


23 






Thalaparamala 


143 


S 




Thandakaran 


125 






Thatinipatta 


125 


Sabarimala 


147 


Thantapulaya 


3. 13, 65 


Samba var 


17 


Thodupuzha 


2 


Sankurandamalai 


28 


Thondimala 


55 


Sasta 


147 


Thotwell 


137 



170 



THE ABORIGINES OF TRAVANCOBE [VOL. HI. 





PAQK 




PAGI 


Thurston 


8, 31 


Vaka 


124 


Todas 


... 58, 62 


Valathraka 


124 


Topinard 


... 8, 19, 31 


Valia Elandari 


125 


Traditions of Origin 




Valiveedu 


51 


Kauikkar 


21 


Varayilkizhu Mannan 


26 


Muthuvan 


25 


Vedda 


...31,32,43 


Mnnnan 


25 


Veeua Mariya 


126 


trail 


27 


Vettuvau 


69 


Paliyan 


28 


Village Deities 


143 


Vishavan 


28 


Virappan Arayan 


22 


Tramp Spirits 


146 


Visscher, J. 0. 


64' 


Tree -house 


72 


Vishavan 


3 


Tylor 


... 118,140 






U 




W 




Uduwbumchola 


26 


Waitz 


12 


Udumparamala 


143 


Wai house 


52 


Ullatau 


... 3,41,64, 


Watubola 


58 




88 


Ward and Conner 


...52,59,151 


Urali 


... ; 3, 26, 40, 


Weapons 


73 




48, 100 


Weddid 


37 






W ester marck 


... 83,92,98, 


Y 






99,120,138 






Widow marriage 


102 


Vadattupara 


55 


Woodroff 


13 


V'adakkarau 


127 







ABBREVIATIONS OF THE TRIBES 



K., for Kanikkar 

M. K., for Malankuravan 

M. Pant., for Malapantaram 

M- P., for Malapulaya 

M. V., for Malavetan 

M. A., for Mala Arayan 

M., for Mannan 

Mut., for Muthuvan 

P., for Paliyan 

Pa., for Parayan 

Pu. f for Pulayan 

U., for Ullatan 

Ur., for Urali 

V., for Vishavan 



NAMES OF EXOGAMOUS CLANS 



Adakad Nagamala (M.) 
Ada kuttom (Pu.) 
Ainikadanki'di (M.) 
Alapankar (V.) 
Ambattan Nagamala (M.) 
Aravakudi (M.) 



Chora kat kuttom (Pu.) 
Ghorunatan illom (Pa.) 
Ohuraliar illom (M. V.) 

B 

Edadankudi (M.) 
Edattupattu Urngarau(M.) 
Ellikuttom (Mut) 
Euna illom (M. A-) 
Ennayarikuttom 
Ermnbiyat illom (K.) 



Kalknndal kudi (M.) 
Kanakuttom (Mut.) 
Kanakuttom (Ur.; 
Kanayathu kuttom (Mut.) , 
Kandamala Panikudi (M.). 
Kandathu Burnakudi (M.) , 
Kanjiram illom (Pa ) 

Kara illom (M. K.) 
Kaiauoheri illom (IT.) 
Kavattu illom (U.) 
Kayyillom (K.) 
Kodiyan Nagamala (M.) , 
Kodiyari kuttom (Ur.) 
Konchillom (Pa.) 
Korangani illom (M. A.) . 
Kovani illom (Pa.) 
Kraplikar (V.) 
Kumblankudi (M.) 



PAGE 


PAGJ* 




Kunnikar (V.) 


82 


.. 85 


Ku rum illom (K-) 


78 


.. 88 


Kurunthadi ilhfcn (M. K.) ... 


87 


.. 85 






.. 82 


M 




.. 85 






.. 84 


Madapalli ill<>m(U.) 


87 




Mala illom (M. A.) 


86 




Malakad Pauikudi (M.) ... 


84 




Mam pal li kuttom (Pu.) 


88 


.. 88 


Mangottillom (K.) 


78 


.. 80 


Maniyarankiidi (M.) 


85 


.. 87 


Mannati illom (K..) 


79 




Mariiigathukar (V.) 


82 




Melakuttorq (Mtit.) 


81 




Mcnati illom (M. K.) 


87 


.. 85 


Monillom (K.) 


77 


- 85 


Modalikad illom (Al. A.) ... 


86 


.. 81 


Modauatan illom (M. V.) ... 


87 


.. 85 


Mulaikonath illom (K ) 


79 


.. 83 


Mundillom (M. A.) 


85 


.. 79 


Muppankad Nagamala (M.)... 


84 




Muthuvar Aravakudi (M.) ... 


84, 






85 




Muttillom (K.) 


77, 


.. 85 




79 


.. 83 


Mylai illorn (Pa.) 


89 


.. 81 






.. 81 


N 




.. 84 






.. 84 


Nattumaimaukudi (M.) 


85 


.. 87, 


Nedungad illom (Pa.) 


89 


89 


Nedumattathu kuttom (Pu.).. 


88 


.. 87 


Nollipalli illom (M. A.) 


86 


.. 88 


Norkottu kuttom (Pu.) 


88 


.. 88 






.. 77 







.. 85 






... 83 


Oria kuttom (Ur.) 


83 


.. 89 


Onthillom (M. K-) 


87 


.. 86 






.. 89 


F 




.. 82 


Padathi kuttom (Pu.) 


88 


.. 85 


Palamala illom (K ) 


79 



174 



THE ABORIGINES OF TRAVANCOBE [Vol>. IH. 





PAGE 


PAGJS 


PalHlom (K.) 


... 77 


Thechira illom (M. K.) 


87 


Pa'iyana kiittom (Pu.) 


... 88 


Th'.-kkada Ailavu (M.) 


84 


Pallikal ill"m (M. K.) 


... 87 


Thonikfcar (V-) 


82 


Panikankudi (M.) 


... 85 


Thoprankudi (M.) 


85 


Panikudi (M.) 


... 84 


Thurobra illom (K.) 


79 


Panniviryan (M.) 


... 85 


Thuriya kuttoin (Mut.) 


83 


Paiithirayira illom(M.A ) 


... 86 


Thushani kuttoni (Mut.) 


81 


Paramala ilium (K.) 


... 78, 








79 






Patika ill<>m (K.) 


... 79 


U 




Paruthi Ul<>m (Pu.) 


... 88 






Purakala illom (U.) 


... 88 


Unan^athad Aravakudi (M.).. 


85 


Porimanilloia (K.) 


... 78 


Uraliarikudi (M.) ... 


85 


Porinchillom (.) 


... 77 






Poriyila kuitom (Ur) 


... 83 






Pey illom (Pa.) 


... 89 


Y 




Piwhatikkar (V.) 


... 82 






Pokkankar (V.) 


... 82 


Vadavattu kuttom (Pu.) ... 


88 


Pouuoyaukar (V.) 


... 82 


Vala illom (M. A.) 


85 , 


Poonjori illom (Pa-) 


... 89 




86 


Poth<>t tillom (K.) 


... 79 


^a^'ana illom (M. K.) 


87 


Puthani illom (M. A.) 


... 81, 


Vayanavar kuttoin (Ur.) ... 


83 




85 


Vayyotan illoju (Pa.) 


89 


Puthaiii knttoni (Mut.) 


... 81 


Votanat illom (K.) ... . 


78, 








79 


R 




Vclillom(K.) 


78 






Vollayillom (K-) 


79 


Jlajakad Ailavu (M.) 


... 85 


Vr-Jlillom (PaO 


89 






Vonatati illom (M. V.) 


87 






Vcudiri illom (M. V.) 


87 


Thaohan illom (Pa.) 


... 89 


Vcuui kuttom (M. K.) 


87 


Thaxhakara illom (Pa ) 


... 89 


Vettikuttom (Ur.) ... 


83 



BIBLIOGRAPHY. 



N<>. 


Name of Author. 


1. 


Ananthakrishr.a Iyer, 




L. K. 


2. 


Benden,E. 


3. 


Briffault, Robert 


4. 


Calyerton 


5. 


Carr Saunders 


6. 


Chanda, R. P. 


7. 


Count Koyserling 


8. 


Crawl ey, A. E. 


9. 


Davenport 


10. 


Dorse y, G. A. 


11. 


Duncan, H. G. 


12. 


Enthoveii, R, !<]. 


13. 


Fanioll 


14.' 


Fragcr, J. G. 


15. 


Frazer Lectu i es 




1922-1932 


16. 


Furgusson 


17. 


Gait, E. A. 


18. 


Griffith Taylor 


19. 


tladdon, A. C. 


20. 


lIodBon, T. C. 


21. 


Uutton, J. H. 


22. 


James, E. O. 


2S. 


Keane, A H . 


24. 


Kue^ynaki, R. R . 


25. 


Kunjan PilJai% N. 


26. 


Mackenzie, D. A. 


27. 


Marett, R. R. 


28. 


Mateer 



29. NagaraiahjV. 



Name of Book. 

The Mysore Tribes and Castca. 
Daath Customs. 
The Mothers. 
Sox in Civilization. 
The Population Problem. 
The Inlo-Aryan Races. 
The Book of Marriage . 
Tho Mystic Rose. 
Heredity in Relation to Eugenics. 
Why We Behave lilre Human Beings. 
Race and Population Problems. 
The Ethnographic Survey of India. 
Jubilee Number of Bombay Anthro- 
pological Society, 1938. 
Tho Evolution of Religion. 
The Golden Bough. 
The Folklore and Old Testameist. 



Rough Stone Monuments, 

The Census of India, 1911 . 

Race and Environment. 

The Races of Man. 

Census Etrmography 1901-1931. 

Tho Census of India, 1931, Parts I 

and III. 
An Introduction to Anthropology. 

Man Past and Present. 

The Balance of Births and Deaths- 

The Travanooro Census Report, 

Indian Myths and Legends. 

Anthropology . 

Native Life in Travanoore. 

The Land of Charity. 

The State Manual. 



176 



THE ABORIGINES OF TRAVANCORE [VoL. III. 



No. Name of Author. 

30. Newbingen 

31. Padraanabha Mennn, 

K- P 

32. Perry, W. J. 

33. Pitt-Rivers 

34. Ralph Do Pomerai 

35. Rangachari, V. 

36. Risloy 

37. Rugger i 

38. Ruggles Gates 

39. Russel, R. V. 

40. Son) pie, E.G. 

41. Srinivasa lyeagar, M. 

42. Staroko 

43. Subramania Iyer, N. 

44. Thotwell 

45. Thurstou 

46. do. 

47. Tylor 

48. Vidal de Blachc 

49. Visscher 

50. Ward and Connor 

51. Wester marc k 



Name of Book. 
Modern Geography. 

The History of Kerala. 

The Children of the Sun. 

Megulithio Culture of Indonesia. 

The Clash of Culture and Contact of 
Races . 

Marriage, Past, Present, and Future. 

The Prehistoric India. 

The People ot India. 

The First Outlines of a Systematic 
Anthropology of Asia. 

Heredity in Man. 

The Tribes and Castes of Central Pro- 
vinces. 

The Influence of Geographical Envi- 
ronment. 

Tamil Studies. 

The Human Family. 

Tho Travanoore Census Report, 1901. 

The Religious Revolution of the Day. 

Madras Museum Bulletin, 2. No. 3, 
The Dravidian Problem- 

Ethnographic Noten in Southern 
India. 

Primitive Culture. 

Tho Principles of Human Geography. 

Letters from Mdabar. 

Memoirs of Jhe Survey of Travancore 
and Cochin. 

The Origin and Development of Moral 
Idea*. 

The Future of Marriage in Western 
Civilization . 



REVIEWS ON VOLUME I. 

. . i 

OPINIONS OP ANTHBOPOLOGISTS. 

1. " A mine of well -arranged information with 
regard to many tribes and castes of primitive 
habits and correspondingly interesting to the 
anthropologist." 

R. E. Marett. 

2. " I am happy to say that 1 like even more 
the contents as they are so well written and form 
a clear survey of facts. This is of great impor- 
tance now, when tribes are vanishing with their 
customs. You have done a really useful work 
for science as well as for your country for 
it is at the present state of affairs of great im- 
portance that we have a careful record of facts 
as you have done, the scientific world being 
already swamped with theories. I appreciate 
your sober and quiet study very much." 

Baron von Eickstedt. 

3. "A valuable contribution to the great work 
set on foot by my old friend Herbert Risley." 

R. E. Enthoven. 

4. "I have found the matter highly interest- 
ing and of a strictly methodical and objective 
character, singling out and describing in full 
detail the salient features in the culture of these 
primitive tribes." 

P. W. Thomas. 



5. " The first volume contains a wealth of 
carefully selected ethnographical material 
regarding seven out of the sixteen primitive 
tribes of Tra van core and is likely to be as indis- 
pensable to the anthropologist as it is of fascina- 
ting interest to the layman." 

C. P. Skrine. 

6, "I congratulate you on the fullness of 
your work. Your remarks on remedial measures 
are particularly valuable as reminding readers 
that anthropology is above all practical." 

J. P. Mills. 



OPINIONS OF THE PKESS. 

1. "Wisely the Travancore Government de- 
cided that first attention should be given to the 
hill-tribes, whose social and religious institu- 
tions are fast vanishing. Only seven of these 
tribes are dealt with in this volume, which re- 
peats and amplifies the admirable synopsis of the 
Census Report for 1931, based on the author's 
notes." 

Nature, London. 

2. "The work has been very carefully done 
and furnishes a very valuable record of the prac- 
tices of these primitive people." 

Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, 

London. 



3. "An excellent work of ethnography, ex- 
tremely rich in information and without useless 
phrases. It is of very great interest to compara- 
tive ethnology." 

Bulletin De L' Association Francaise 
Des Amis De L' Orient (Parish 

4* " A valuable addition to tbe anthropologi- 
cal literature of South India by one who is an 
accepted authority on the ethnography* of Tra- 

vancore. 

The Hindustan Times, New Delhi. 

5. "The State of Travancore is a rich store- 
house of ethnological material, and students of 
anthropology have been long looking forward to 
a comprehensive account of the tribes and castes 
of the State. Now that, under the direction of 
the State authorities. Mr. L. A. Krishna Iyer 
has supplied the first instalment of such an ac- 
count, students will be grateful to the State 

authorities. 

Man in India, Ranchi. 

6. " The Travancore Government deserves 
congratulations on the publication of the first 
volume, written by Mr. L. A. Krishna Iyer, of 
The Travancore Tribes and Castes in which 
seven out of the sixteen primitive tribes in that 
State, are described, at length, in terms of strict 
scientific accuracy. When completed, this series 
of volumes will be a valuable contribution to the 
study of Anthropology and Ethnography. The 
illustrations are well executed, and the book 
redounds to the credit of the author, and also of 
the State that he setves. ' ' 

The Hindustan Review, Patna, 

[iii] 



7. " Contact with other people is rapidly 
changing the racial organization and life of these 
tribes. Their origin, their territory, and the in- 
fluence of natural features on their habits, cus- 
toms, and traditions are dealt with by Mr. Krishna 
Iyer, who has pursued, though in a different 
area, the anthropological and ethnographic in- 
vestigations carried out in Cochin and Mysore 
by his distinguished father, the late Dewan 
Bahadur Dr. L. K. Ananthakrishna Iyer." 

The Madras Mail. 

8. " To the proper study of man as a social 
being, the observations of the professional an- 
thropologist in the day-to-day life of man are 
necessary. That the author, himself the son of 
another distinguished author on books on the 
Mysore and Cochin Tribes and Castes, should 
have undertaken the task, is a sufficient guaran- 
tee of the i thoroughness in treatment of the 
matter dealt with in the work before us." 

Journal of the Mythic Society, Bangalore. 

9. " This neatly gat up volume is a study of 
the tribes of the Highlands of Travancore. The 
picture of the material and social anthropology 
of these tribes, who have reached the vanishing 
point, and on whom the influence of modern 
civilization is steadily making its mark, is in- 
valuable from a scientific and historical point of 
view." 

The Bharata Patrika, Trivandrum. 



[iv] 



10. " The Travancore Government, consist- 
ently with their well established policy of the 
promotion of culture in any form, have placed 
the scientific world under great obligation by 
entrusting the work to such an able and experi- 
enced worker like Mr, Krishna Iyer whose 
piecemeal publications on the different aspects 
of the subject have been highly complimented 
by several organizations and journals dealing 
with the subject." .. 

The Daily News, Trivandrum. 

11. ** The usefulness of the work consists in 
the fact that it is an authenticated record of the 
modes of life of a primitive population that has 
almost reached vanishing point. To keep a re- 
cord of the various customs and peculiarities of 
life which give each tribe an individuality of its 
own, to indicate the origin and traditions of each, 
to give an account of their marriage customs, 
religious beliefs, and in fact to draw up a picture 
of their life in general is indeed a service done 
to history." 

The Malayala Raj yam, Quilon. 

12. *' Brimful of facts which should satisfy 
the most fastidious ethnographist but at the 
same time absorbingly interesting even to the 
lay reader, the Travancore Tribes and Castes is 
a notable contribution to the ethnographical 
literature and is a valuable addition to the col- 
lection of reference books concerning Travan* 

core." 

The Bharata Kesari, Trivandrum. 



[v] 



REVIEWS ON VOLUME II. 
OPINIONS OF ANTHROPOLOGISTS. 

1. " A first reading assures me that in its 
matter and manner alike it is a masterly piece of 
work. I hope you will long continue to bring 
credit to Indian learning and research." 

R. R. Marett. 

2. " It is a most useful publication." 

J. P. Mills. 

3. '* It strikes me as an interesting and use- 
ful record of tribes whose ancient customs must 
now be rapidly disappearing." 

F. H. Gravely. 

4. "I may say now that I am in fall agr.ee- 
men t with Dr. Button's Foreword." 

M. Yeatts. 

OPINIONS OF THE PRESS. 

1. " Mr. Krishna Iyer is much to be congratu- 
lated on his lucid description of the history, cus- 
toms, and ceremonies of Travancore. The care- 
ful classification of subjects makes the book of 
practical reference. In every way hd tries to 
tell us the reasons and underlying ideas for the 
behaviour of these jungle people, all of which 
makes for greater interest." 

Nature, London. 



2. * ' Mr. Iyer gives his readers a good insight 
into the culture and manner of life of his 
tribes." 

Journal of the Madras University. 

3. "It follows the simple and adequate plan 
as the first volume of presenting a definite pic- 
ture of the material and social anthropology of 
each of the tribes described and thus providing 
a trustworthy record of conditions that are fast 
disappearing under the impact of modern civili- 
zation. The Travancore Government, which 
deservedly takes a place in the front rank of 
Indian State Governments, has earned the 
gratitude of all students of Indian anthropology 
by organising this survey and publishing its 
results with commendable speed." 

The Leader, Allahabad. 

4. "What enhances the value of the accounts 
is the systematised manner in which the studies 
of the eight tribes seem to have been pursued by 
the author. This study may be said to throw no 
small light on the question of the matriarchate 
in South India. The domain of the mother is 
seen to be su'preme in almost every tribe dealt 
with in the volume . ' ' 

The Hindu, Madras. 

5. As one reads of one group 'after another, 
one is struck with the Indian capacity to con- 
serve what is even of the least value, even in the 
face of the most ttaexpected natural or manmade 
difficulties. In the marriage customs of these 

[vii] 



peoples, in their quaint songs, and in the rituals 
which are connected to everyone of their social 
functions, one comes across the rudiments of 
calculated collective effort, and of a healthy 
consciousness of the value of economic justice. 
Today when hybrid education has invested even 
the greatest amongst us with despair about our 
social future, a book like Mr. Krishna Iyer's is 
very helpful, for it re-assures us once again that 
we have an immemorial background of social 
effort and integral group existence. " 

The Hindustan Times, New Delhi. 

6. " The two volumes analyse the distinc- 
tive characteristics of the tribes, and their social 
organization and customs and permitted interac- 
tions, and copiously illustrate the analyses by 
photographs of individuals and groups and their 
homes and'avocations ; also by maps, charts and 
statistics. The series does great credit to 
the author, who takes his place among the small 
but distinguished group of workers in a field of 
knowledge which is not always appreciated as 
it should". 

The Indian Social Reformer. 

7. " As the home of some of the most primi- 
tive tribes of South India, some of whom have 
not emerged from the hunting stage of life, these 
volumes embodying the results of an ethnolo- 
gical survey of the whole State, are* of undoubted 
interest; and both the Travancore Government 



and the author, L. A. Krishna Iyer, are to be 
congratulated on their publication". 

The Madras Mail. 

8. " Anyone who understands the difficulty 
in collecting authentic ethnographic data in the 
tropical jungles will give credit to the author 
for the industry and enthusiasm that he has 
brought to bear on this piece of work. The 
illustrations are more carefully selected than 
the first volume and the get-up is definitely 
better". 

Current Science, Bangalore. 

9. "The second * volume keeps up the high 
standard set by the talented author in the first, 
and we look forward with ardent anticipations 
the succeeding volumes of this valuable 
work. Our thanks are due not only to the able 
author of the work who has accomplished 
his task so well, but also to His Highness the 
enlightened and generous Maharaja of Tra van- 
core and his wise and far-sighted Dewan who 
have placed the scientific world in their debt by 
instituting a regular Ethnographic Survey of the 
State of which these volumes are the first fruits." 

Man in India, Ranchi. 

10. "The second volume gives an interesting 
account of eight of the aboriginal tribes of Tra- 
vancore. Each tribe is treated in a systematic 
manner according to a definite plan, and a wealth 
of interesting matter is provided for the reader. 
The Government of Travancore are to be con- 
gratulated on their enterprise and the complete 



set of volumes should be of great value to every 
officer who fcas anything to do with the adminis 
tration of the State." 

The Indian Forester, Dehra Dun. 

11. "The book is an admirable attempt to con- 
tinue the well-known series of Travancore Eth- 
nology. Both the Government of Travancore 
and the author deserve praise and thanks for an 
undoubted piece of useful work." 

The Journal of the Bihar and Orissa 

Research Society. 

12. "The author has made a comprehensive 
survey of these tribes with the zeal of a searcher 
after truth. The results of his exhaustive in- 
vestigation have been so deftly marshalled that 
the reader c$ii,easily move among the animating 
waves of information that confront him. The 
movement onward is easy, lucid, and interesting. 
We have no doubt that this book will be a valu- 
able addition to tho literature on aboriginal 
tribes." 

The Malayali, Trivandrum. 

13. "It must be admitted that the patience 
and industry which the author has brought to 
bear on the work have been richly rewarded, in 
that it throws a flood of light on the modes of 
life, dress, and culture of the primitive tribes and 
groups of Travancore". 

The Malayala Rajyam, Quilon. 
W. 



CHARTS 

showing Distribution of Stature, Cephalic 
Index and Nasal Index. 



f 


I 

i 
i 












1 ! I .' ! ' 1 












u . * 








i 






JO US 140 145 A 150 K 

Fig.1 1 
* t 


*155 B t60 lift C IT? 1*5 

fan/Mar. 
i 




t 












i i 




*'*'!'! i i 




: : - ; ,! , 


JO 135 140 145 A 100 f 

Fit *' 

! I .1 
, * .1 
i 


C"':"":'*^" 

iJiuratran 
t i 

:. ! ! 






':.!? ::i::s:;!:i:::i:i:::. i ,.i:, ,! T . . , i 


A M B 4 4 
140 145 150 155 160 tftft 170 175 

Fig. 3. Ufa/ajM/itoa/n. 



Of 



DISTRIBUTION of STATURE 

Scatt f Inch* 10 cms. 
Left of A -Pygmy. 
A-B -Short 
B-C -Medium. 



M 

! -' : ! 

....:, ,.!.!!.., 




Tan. 

I 
i 
I 
t 

f ! 


Uainre. 

! 
. 

; i * 1 1 rr? . r 


I 
I 

; ij, , , , . 


r < i t 1 I.J.UUJ..I.,. i.x-1 i ij^i t 1 i 
50 135 140 146 150 

Fig , 4 . tfa/ap 

' i 
i 

' . r . . r : : : . r 


* 8 
u/ayan. 

! .' 




** i* 

! 



170 175 

I 
I 

I 

. ll. . . , i 
1 Ml 1 1 1 1 








, i ; , , , i , ;!i 


30 135 140 145 A f50 M t6f 

F/g .5 Mtnnan, 


c 

160 165 


170 175 

1 
1 
1 


: .:..:!:::: 






I 






.i.-l-a . .1 . 1 . . t . 1 . . |. 


1 y* 1 ' *' 



130 136 (40 H5 ISO 166 ffiQ ]66 170 

ft- 



t 


i ; ; ; ; 

i 





: :....:..|, | 


50 135 140 H5 tso /55 





B CD 

160 t0S 170 175 



LfMo, Surrey C^ce, TuvM^m. 1940 A. 0/1 US M 



DISTRIBUTION of STATURE 

Scale I Inch** 10 cms. 

I*f* of A -Pygmy. 

A-B -Short 

B-C -Medium 

C-D Tall. 

Man Suture 
I 



I . U. , l w . 

:::. :.: ! 
I: :::!: ' 

i T ' . i '. ui i \ \ t . ? ?l * 'n i ? * T * T i ilt . iu . . i 

13S 140 K5 ' 150 155 160 165 170 175 

Fig 8.Muthuvan. .* 

\ \ 

* !- j 

; . ? : : r g r ;^: ; i n . . . i 

135 140 145 " 150 155 MB 160 165 170 175 

fig 5. P&liyan. 

i ; 

j? i . . : : ! | 

i; ;;,};!;; i ;;h;i ;;;!;i ;;;;;. i,. iLf, .. 

135 140 145 A 150 M 155 B 160 16S 17? 175 

Fig 10. Pti/ayan 



t - : i ! f ! 

...... i i 

i 

. t . :i? . i : tl: : i : : :s? i r . . , . .ii . iL > _. . * 

A M B C O 

135 140 145 150 155 160 '*& 170 >75 

Fig . 11 Thantapulayav 



L/tAo, Survt/ Office, Tnvandrum 1940 A 



DISTRIBUTION of STATURE 

Scale I Inch = 10 cms. 
Left of A Pygmy, 
A-B -Short. 

B-C -Medium. 



P C-D Tail. 




M Mean Stature. 




- 


::: 





i 




i 








:: 


t 
i 



13S ' 140 f4S 150 155 160 ,166 170 175 
F^ . H 



- 




1 




** 


. 


I 






r 


-1 




- 


. . . 


: .[.. 











' 


" 




. H-- 


;. : !i::.!.:! 


J| t 1 1 1 1 i I_L 1 I 1 
<if. j -. . _ 


l"'"^V 


I' ' 1' ' 


1 ' 'A" '6' " " 



15S 160 1GS 170 

Fig . 13. UrilL 



175 



E ! : 


1 


1 


1 




L - 


1 


| 


| 




F * 1*1 


! 
1 < .1 1 1 1 1 t I 1 


JlnM^ 


Mh . 


UlJ 


A M B 


*TT 


< 


4 



135 140 145 " ISO 15 ' 160 

Fig . 74. Vi&hwan. 



I t 
! i 



it 



138 



140 146 ISO *55 tfiO 



165 



170 176 



Fig . id. 

Lithe, Survey Office, Trivzndrum. i93Q A. 0/111$ 



DISTRIBUTION of STATURE 

5ca/e / Inch =10 cms 
Left of A -Pygmy 
A-B -Short. 
B-C -Medium, 
C-D -Tall. 
* -Mean Stature. 



I ' ! 

f ' ! :. 

. , ., , !. r ::-.- rr: : -r 




i 

! 


1 " " ' A' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' v ' ' ' ' ' 


4-r- 


* _K jK 



135 



145 ISO 155 f60 

fig. 16 Sambavar 



170 



I 


1 
1 * * , 


. 


i 


i 
i 
i 
..,..!. 


i 
i 
i 

fit ' * * 


. . . : :l: : i : t : 


i 




133 140 


145 ISO T55 

Fig 17. 


B 

160 

Para/an 


it * 


170 t7 



L/t/Jo, Sumy Oftco, Trivandrum. 1340 A. 0/1115 M . 



DISTRIBUTION of CEPHALIC INDEX 

Scale / Inch =10 ems. 
Left of A -Dolichocephalic. 

A-B -Msocephallc. 
Right of B -Braehyeaptutlle. 



65 



70 



A 
75 



85 



f/g . f a 



&o 



70 



A 

75 



f/g . 3 a. Afa/apantaram. 



, 7r//nrfrum. 19M A. 0/111$ M . , 



DISTRIBUTION of CEPHALIC INDEX 

Scale I Inch =10 cms. 
Lrft of A -Dollohoeaphallc. 

A-B -Hesoeephalie. 
Right of B -Brachyeephallc. 




Litho, Surrey 0ftct, 



. 1940 A. 0/111$ M . 



DISTRIBUTION of CEPHALIC INDEX 

Scale I inth=W cms. 
Left of JL -Dolichocephalic, 

A-B MeBOcephaltc. 
Right of B Brachycephalie, 



70 



85 



Fig .7*. Ma/ayanayan. 



65 



70 



76 



Fig ,8s. 



75 



B 
00 



Fig . 9 a. Pa//yan. 



L'rtho, Survey Office, Trivandrum 1910 A. D/1115 U f 



DISTRIBUTION of CEPHALIC INDEX 

Scale I Inch*e10 cms. 
Lift of A -Dolichocephalic. 

A-B Mesocephftlic. 
Right of B -Brachycephallc. 



i 



A rs 



fig . fOa.Pi//ayan. 



Fig . 11 *. Thantapu/ay&n. 



76 



80 



fig . 12 a.UHttan. 



Lltho, Sww Office. TrivMdfum 194* A. 0/111S M . . 



DISTRIBUTION of CEPHALIC INDEX 

Scale / InchsslO cms. - 
Ltffc of A -Dolichocephalic. 

A-B -Mesacephalle. 
Right of B -Brachycephalic, 



65 



70 



95 



Fig. 13*.UralL 



.: I I 

*** 

.::: ,|r?? .. ?.?.!? 

75 80 



65 



70 



Fig 



75 

. Vishwan 



as 



65 



70 



B ao 



as 



15 a. 



Lilho, Survey Offct, Triv*ndrvw. 1930 A. 0/1119 M. 



DISTRIBUTION of CEPHALIC INDEX 

Seal* I Inch a 10 cms 
Left of A -Dolichocephalic. 

A-B -Hetoeephalic. 
Bight of B -Brachycaphalio 



G5 



A 
75 



70 75 80 

Fig. 16a.Sambav*r. 



. I .: . I 

ffl ! 

t ! ! 



65 



70 



76 

Pig. 17 t. 



BO 



titho, Survey Off*, 7>f witfrtf/n. 1940 A. D/1115 M . 



DISTRIBUTION of NASAL INDEX 

Scale I Inch** 10 c/ns. 
Left of A -Leptorhine. 
A-B -XtttrUM. 

Right of B -Platyrhine 



65 70 75 80 



a* so 95 100 105 no 11 
F/l.U. /fan/Mar. 



e 70 7% so 



9S 100 105 flO It 



Fig . 2b.Mt!ankurmn. 



Trim*'**, 



DISTRIBUTION of NASAL INDEX 

Scale J InchxIO cms. 
Left of A -Laptoj-Wne. 
A-B -Hesorhine. 
Right of B -Platyrhlne. 



i ; : : : i ? y 1 1 r : : .* : i : : r : T . . . . t . . . . r 

66 70 75 60 85 90 95 100 106 1fO 

ftg.3lk.Ma/apantaram. 

i t L .If i i i i i . i . 1 1 i . it .| . < * ' i ' ? t i i . . * . i i i > . i t i i i i 

A B 

65 70 75 80 85 90 95 fOO T05 MO 

Fig , 4 b . Af a/apt/ fayafl* 

i .;.... , 

65 70 TS 90 95 90 95 100 105 110 



< 
I 

* * I 

63 70 76 80 ^5 90 95 100 105 HO 

Fig . 6b. Mulwetan. 



Utho, Sumy Office, Trivandru/n. 1949 A. 0/111* M . . 



DISTRIBUTION of NASAL INDEX 

Scab I lnch^/0 cms. 
Ltfft of a -l*ptorhlne. 
A-B -Mboorhint. 
Right of B -PUtyrhlna. 



t : : . : i ::::;:: 

63 >0 75 60 "SS 90 99 100 I OS HO 

Fig . 7 b . Wa/ayarayaif. 
t . . . . i * * ! ? 7 \ \ \ 

65 70 75 80 1$ 90 95 100 105 110 

Fig. Bb. Mvthuvw. 

- -\ 



. . *. : i , : : , g : . ; tl: ? ? ? i : : ? . i . . t . i . . . . i . . . . i 

65 70 75 80 0S 90 95 tOO 100 tfO 

Fig.9b. 

i ". . . .1.^1 



$5 70 75 80 69 90 9S MO 10S 110 



FJg.lOb. Pu/ayan. 



LHhQ, Sumy Office. TriYtndrum. WQA. D/1116 M . 



DISTRIBUTION of NASAL INDEX 

Scale I /flc*=/0 ems. 

Left of A -Uptorhine. 

A-B -Mesorhine. 

Right of 3 -PUtyrhine 



f 














F - : 












' 


75 80 E 


35 


90 


95 


100 JOB 110 



fig. 11 b. r/wntepufayan. 



A 
70 



75 



SO 



95 



F/g . 



65 70 75 80 BS 90 95 100 <OS 110 



Fig . 13 6 



Litho, Sumy Office, Trinndrm 19 MA. D/HI* M . . 



DISTRIBUTION of NASAL INDEX 

Scale / Inch* /O cms, 
Left of A -Leptorhioc. 
&"B -Maorhine. 
WgM of B -Platyrhine. 



6V 70 75 BO 85 90 95 100 <OS MO 



90 99 tOO 105 110